Experimental Methods for Determining Residual Stresses and Strains in Various Biological Structures

Over the years, an assortment of methods for determining residual stresses has been developed in the field of experimental mechanics. Adaptations of those methods to study residual strains and stresses in various biological structures found in humans, other mammals, viruses and an insect are reviewed. Methods considered include deflections from release of residual stresses, hole drilling and ring coring, strains upon dissection, the contour method, slitting (crack compliance), X-ray diffraction, photoelasticity, and membrane and shell displacements. Sources of residual stresses and strains are summarized and examples of their physiological role noted.