Hydrogeochemical and isotopic evidence of groundwater evolution and recharge in aquifers in Beijing Plain, China

An investigation was conducted in Beijing to identify the groundwater evolution and recharge in the quaternary aquifers. Water samples were collected from precipitation, rivers, wells, and springs for hydrochemical and isotopic measurements. The recharge and the origin of groundwater and its residence time were further studied. The groundwater in the upper aquifer is characterized by Ca-Mg-HCO3 type in the upstream area and Na-HCO3 type in the downstream area of the groundwater flow field. The groundwater in the lower aquifer is mainly characterized by Ca-Mg-HCO3 type in the upstream area and Ca-Na-Mg-HCO3 and Na-Ca-Mg-HCO3 type in the downstream area. The delta D and delta O-18 in precipitation are linearly correlated, which is similar to WMWL. The delta D and delta O-18 values of river, well and spring water are within the same ranges as those found in the alluvial fan zone, and lay slightly above or below LMWL. The delta D and delta O-18 values have a decreasing trend generally following the precipitation -> surface water -> shallow groundwater -> spring water -> deep groundwater direction. There is evidence of enrichment of heavy isotopes in groundwater due to evaporation. Tritium values of unconfined groundwater give evidence for ongoing recharge in modern times with mean residence times < 50 a. It shows a clear renewal evolution along the groundwater flow paths and represents modern recharge locally from precipitation and surface water to the shallow aquifers (< 150 m). In contrast, according to C-14 ages in the confined aquifers and residence time of groundwater flow lines, the deep groundwater is approximately or older than 10 ka, and was recharged during a period when the climate was wetter and colder mainly from the piedmont surrounding the plain. The groundwater exploitation is considered to be mined unsustainably because more water is withdrawn than it is replenished.