Municipal wastewater treatment with vertical flow constructed wetlands for irrigation reuse

The treatment effect of two pilot-scale vertical flow constructed wetlands (VFCWs) on municipal wastewaters and their suitability for irrigation reuse were evaluated in a 2-year (2002-2003) experiment. One VFCW was planted with Typha latifolia and the other with Phragmites australis. VFCW efficiency was evaluated in terms of both mass removal and water quality improvement, considering the following parameters: pH, electrical conductivity (EC(w)), total suspended solids (TSS), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total nitrogen (TN) and nitrate (NO(3)(-)), total phosphorus (TP) and orthophosphate (PO(4)(3-)), sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca). The accumulation of the elements in the plant organs and VFCW sandy surface layer and their offtake with the macrophyte harvest were also measured. In quantitative terms the established VFCWs showed higher removal efficiencies (>86%) for COD, BOD, N and K, while lower efficiencies (<47%) were observed for Na and Mg. The direct contribution (offtake) of the macrophytes in N, P and K removal processes was particularly high (>65%) due to the massive growth, The results were less favourable in terms of water quality, because the high evapotranspiration losses counteracted the depuration process by concentrating the elements in the outflow water. Higher concentrations were found in outflow than inflow, especially of Na (relative increase of 89%) and Mg (relative increase of 74%). Only parameters with high removal efficiencies fulfilled the Italian guidelines for irrigation reuse whereas parameters with lower efficiencies (e.g., TSS, TP) limited the potential water reuse. Efficient pre-cleaning systems or innovative integrated systems are thus necessary to obtain high removal efficiencies that reduce the effect of ET on water quality. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.