Ice as a reservoir for pathogenic human viruses: specifically, caliciviruses, influenza viruses, and enteroviruses

Hundreds of isolates of viable bacteria and fungi have been recovered from ancient ice and permafrost. Evidence supports the hypothesis that viral pathogens also are preserved in ice repositories, such as glaciers, ice sheets, and take ice. Proof may depend upon narrowing the search by applying specific criteria, which would target candidate viruses. Such criteria include viral pathogens likely to occur in great abundance, likely to be readily transported into ice, and then participate in ongoing disease cycles suggestive of their having been deposited in and subsequently released from ice. Caliciviruses, influenza A, and some enteroviruses appear to satisfy all three criteria. Environmental ice appears to be an important abiotic reservoir for pathogenic microbes. World health and eradication of specific pathogens could be affected by this huge reservoir. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.