Deletion of cyclooxygenase 2 in mouse mammary epithelial cells delays breast cancer onset through augmentation of type 1 immune responses in tumors

Inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX) 2, which is associated with > 40% of breast cancers, decreases the risk of tumorigenesis and breast cancer recurrence. To study the role of COX-2 in breast cancer, we engineered mice that lack selectively mammary epithelial cell (MEC) COX-2 (COX-2 KOMEC). Compared with wild type (WT), MEC from COX-2 KOMEC mice expressed > 90% less COX-2 messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein and produced 90% less of the dominant pro-oncogenic COX-2 product, prostaglandin (PG) E-2. We confirmed COX-2 as the principle source of PGE(2) in MEC treated with selective COX-2 and COX-1 inhibitors. Tumors were induced in mice using medroxyprogesterone acetate and 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene. Breast cancer onset was significantly delayed in COX-2 KOMEC compared with WT (P = 0.03), equivalent to the delay following systemic COX-2 inhibition with rofecoxib. Compared with WT, COX-2 KOMEC tumors showed increased mRNA for Caspase-3, Ki-67 and common markers for leukocytes (CD45) and macrophages (F4/80). Analysis of multiple markers/cytokines, namely CD86, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) and Tim-3 indicated a shift toward antitumorigenic type 1 immune responses in COX-2 KOMEC tumors. Immunohistochemical analysis confirmed elevated expression of CD45, F4/80 and CD86 in COX-2 KOMEC tumors. Concordant with a role for COX-2 in restraining M1 macrophage polarization, CD86 and TNF alpha expression were offset by exogenous PGE(2) in bone marrow-derived macrophages polarized in vitro to the M1 phenotype. Our data reveal the importance of epithelial COX-2 in tumor promotion and indicate that deletion of epithelial COX-2 may skew tumor immunity toward type 1 responses, coincident with delayed tumor development.