False inflated self-esteem and violence: a systematic review and cognitive model

Traditionally, much research into violence has focussed on risk factors rather than on perpetrators' perspectives on their violent acts and the powerful psychological influences on those individuals' violent behaviour. In forensic settings, the most popular model for working with violence has been anger management, which uses a cognitive behavioural approach to explain how triggers may cause anger and violence via a series of information processing biases. Interestingly, an area that receives less attention in the cognitive behavioural literature on violence and anger is the role of embarrassment and humiliation ('dis'respect), and their opposites respect and pride (or healthy self-esteem). However, psychodynamic perspectives put humiliation at the centre of causes of violence, coupled with coping and social problem-solving deficits resulting from disrupted attachments. Despite the absence of a focus on self-esteem in models of and treatments for aggression and violence, there is some recent research evidence that suggests a complicated relationship between the two, but generally favours a link between low self-esteem and violence. This paper systematically reviews studies from the last 20 years evaluating the relationship between self-esteem and violence. A theoretical model is subsequently presented in an attempt to integrate ideas about self-esteem, 'machismo', and violence. It is proposed that important cognitions relating to violence also relate to self-esteem and the (arrogant or aggressive) protection of low self-esteem in the face of humiliation. Violence can be seen as a 'macho' response which allows the perpetrator to express and discharge unpleasant feelings associated with threat, and simultaneously serves a 'social' function by injuring the victim who provoked the assault, demonstrating strength to others, and restoring some level of 'pride' (saving face).