Stable, efficient p-type doping of graphene by nitric acid

We systematically dope monolayer graphene with different concentrations of nitric acid over a range of temperatures, and analyze the variation of sheet resistance after vacuum annealing up to 300 degrees C. The optimized HNO3 doping conditions yield sheet resistances as low as 180 Omega sq.(-1), which is significantly more stable under vacuum annealing than previously reported values. Raman and photoemission spectroscopy suggest that this stable graphene doping occurs by a bi-modal mechanism. Under mild conditions the dopants are weakly bonded to graphene, but at high acid temperatures and concentrations, the doping is higher and more stable upon post-doping annealing, without causing significant lattice damage. This work shows that large, stable hole concentrations can be induced by transfer doping in graphene.