Vascularization and angiogenesis in electrospun tissue engineered constructs: towards the creation of long-term functional networks

Despite unprecedented advancement in the field of tissue engineering (TE), only a few engineered tissues - namely skin, cartilage and bladder-have achieved clinical success, mainly due to insufficient vascularization within the TE constructs in the initial phase after implantation. A highly organized vascular network of venules, capillaries, and arterioles supplying cells with nutrients and oxygen is required for the long-term functionality of engineered tissues. To promote the formation of an organized vascular network within tissue constructs, several approaches have been investigated including the modification of scaffold properties, the use of growth factors, and the use of co-culture systems. This review will discuss these strategies with particular focus on electrospun scaffolds. Future directions towards the engineering of optimal, functional vascular networks within electrospun TE scaffolds will also be highlighted.