Two distinct disulfide bonds formed in human heat shock transcription factor 1 act in opposition to regulate its DNA binding activity

Under circumstances of heat stress, heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1) plays important roles in beat shock protein expression. In this study, an increasing concentration of dithiothreitol (DTT) was found to either enhance or inhibit the heat-induced trimerization of HSF1, suggesting the involvement of dual redox-dependent HSF1 activation mechanisms. Our in vitro experiments show that the heat-induced bonding between the cysteine C36 and C103 residues of HSF1 forms an intermolecular disulfide covalent bond (SS-I bond) and that it directly causes HSF1 to trimerize and bond to DNA. Gel filtration assays show that HSF1 can form intermolecular hydrophobic interaction-mediated (iHI-m) noncovalent oligomers. However, the lack of a trimerization domain prevents HSF1 activation, which suggests that iHI-m noncovalent trimerization is a precondition of SS-I bond formation. On the other hand, intramolecular SS-II bond (in which the C153, C373, and C378 residues of HSF1 participate) formation inhibits this iHI-m trimerization, thereby preventing SS-I bond formation and DNA binding. Thus, HSF1 activation is regulated positively by intermolecular SS-I bond formation and negatively by intramolecular SS-II bond formation. Importantly, these two SS bonds confer different DTT sensitivities (the SS-II bond is more sensitive). Therefore, a low concentration of DTT cleaves the SS-II bond but not the SS-I bond and thus improves DNA binding of HSF1, whereas a high concentration DTT cuts both SS bonds and inhibits HSF1 activation. We propose that these interesting effects further explain cellular HSF1 trimerization, DNA binding, and transcription when cells are under stress.