Imagine a world without seed dispersers: A review of threats, consequences and future directions

Seed dispersing animals, ranging from small insects to large mammals, provide a crucial service for a large number of plant species worldwide. However, a decline in dispersers due to direct and indirect threats leads to disruptions of seed dispersal processes. As disperser species are differently susceptible to these threats, consequences for ecosystems are hard to predict. impacts range from hampered regeneration of plant species to shifts in communities and a decline in ecosystem function. Here, we review these threats as well as expected consequences for communities and for the entire ecosystem. We further introduce options to protect dispersers and consider future research directions.