High-Tc and low-Tc dc SQUID electronics

Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) are commonly operated in a flux-locked loop (FLL). The SQUID electronics amplifies the small SQUID signal to an acceptable level without adding noise, and it linearizes the transfer function of the SQUID in order to provide sufficient dynamic range. In this paper, the fundamentals of SQUID readout are reviewed including a discussion of preamplifier noise. The basic FLL concepts, direct readout and flux modulation readout, are discussed both with dc bias and bias reversal. Alternative readout concepts such as additional positive feedback (APF), two-stage SQUIDs, SQUID series arrays, relaxation oscillation SQUIDs and digital SQUIDS are briefly described. The FLL dynamics are discussed on the basis of a simple model with finite loop delay. It is shown that with optimized SQUID electronics a system bandwidth of approximate to18 MHz and a corresponding slew rate of approximate to18 MHz are possible. A novel FLL scheme involving a Smith predictor is presented which allows one to increase the FLL bandwidth to about 100 MHz. The theoretical predictions are experimentally checked using a high-speed SQUID electronics prototype with a small-signal bandwidth of 300 MHz. Methods for increasing the dynamic range of SQUID systems are described: flux-quanta counting and dynamic field compensation (DFC). With DFC, the residual magnetic field at the SQUID can be kept close to zero even if the device is moved in the Earth's field. Therefore, the noise level of a high-T-c magnetometer measured inside a magnetically shielded room (60 fT Hz(-1/2) with a 1/f comer at 2 Hz) remained unchanged after moving the device in the magnetic field outside the room (60 AT dc plus 0.8 muT peak-to-peak power line interference).