The ecological implications of harvesting non-timber forest products

1. The harvest of wild non-timber forest products (NTFP) represents an important source of income to millions of people world-wide. Despite growing concern over the conservation of these species, as well as their potential to foster forest conservation, information on the ecological implications of harvest is available only in disparate case studies. 2. Seventy studies that quantify the ecological effects of harvesting NTFP from plant species were reviewed, with the aims of assessing the current state of knowledge and drawing lessons that can provide guidelines for management as well as better directing future ecological research in this area. 3. The case studies illustrated that NTFP harvest can affect ecological processes at many levels, from individual and population to community and ecosystem. However, the majority of research was focused at a population level and on a limited subset of plant parts that are harvested. 4. Tolerance to harvest varies according to life history and the part of plant that is harvested. Moreover, the effects of harvest for any one species are mediated by variation in environmental conditions over space and time, and by human management practices. 5. In order to withstand heavy harvest, specific management practices in addition to gathering are necessary for many NTFP species. Management practices can be carried out at different spatial scales and some are highly effective in fostering population persistence. 6. Synthesis and applications. Substantial advances have been made towards identifying the ecological impacts of NTFP harvest. However, there is a need for longer-term studies that focus on multiple ecological levels (ranging from genes to ecosystems), that assess the mechanisms underlying impacts and that validate current models. Researchers and forest managers need to work with local harvesters in designing and evaluating management practices that can mitigate the negative effects of harvest.