Characterization of protein fouling on membranes: opportunities and challenges

Characterization of protein-fouled membranes is crucial to understand the fouling mechanisms and optimization of fouling control and cleaning. This paper reviews current developments in membrane characterization as applied to protein-fouled membranes and difficulties still encountered. The potential of a number of new techniques yet to be fully exploited are also discussed. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.