Avian analgesia

Avian pain likely analogous to pain experienced by most mammels. Approach to pain management for the avian patient involves considering the duration, type, and extent of injury along with physical, environmental, and behavioral management. Invasive, painful procedures should always be accompanied by appropriate analgesia and anesthesia. Although pain management in birds is in its infancy, research and clinical studies demonstrate benefit for use of opioids, steroidal and nonsterodial anti-inflammatory drugs, as well as other analgesics such as alpha(2)-agonists, ketamine, and local anesthetics. Ongoing assessment of pain and analgesic efficacy is extremely important, because the dosage and choice of analgesic may vary widely between species. Copyright 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.