Materials challenges for CdTe and CuInSe2 photovoltaics

The record laboratory cell (similar to 1 cm(2) area) efficiency for thin-film cadmium telluride (CdTe) is 16.5%, and that for a copper indium diselenide (CulnSe(2)) thin-film alloy is 19.5%. Commercially produced CdTe and CulnSe(2) modules (0.5-1 m(2) area) have efficiencies in the 7-11% range. Research is needed both to increase laboratory cell efficiencies and to bring those small-area efficiencies to large-area production. Increases in laboratory CdTe cell efficiency will require increasing open-circuit voltage, which will allow cells to harvest more energy from each absorbed photon. This will require extending the minority carrier lifetime from its present tau <= 2 ns to tau <= 10 ns and increasing hole concentration in the CdTe beyond 10(15) cm(2), which appears to be limited by compensating defects. Increasing laboratory CuInSe2-based cell efficiency significantly beyond 19.5% will also require increasing the open-circuit voltage, either by increasing the bandgap, the doping level, or the minority carrier lifetime. The photovoltaic cells in commercial modules occupy tens of square centimeters, and both models and experiments have shown that low-performing regions in small fractions of a cell can significantly reduce the overall cell performance. Increases in commercial module efficiency will require control of materials properties across large deposition areas in a high-throughput environment to minimize such non-uniformities. This article discusses approaches used and research needed to increase the ultimate efficiencies of CdTe- and CulnSe(2)-based devices and translate these gains to commercial photovoltaic modules.