Further investigation of psychological and environmental correlates of substance use in adolescence in six European countries

Aim: To study the multifactorial correlates of adolescents' use of legal and illegal substances in six European countries and to assess whether a common pattern of factors exists irrespective of the countries' different sociocultural backgrounds. Design: Cross-sectional European school population survey (ESPAD) following standardized methodology. Participants: National probability samples of 16-year-old high school students from Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Romania, Slovenia and the UK. Total sample 16,445. Measurements: Anonymous questionnaire self-administered in the classroom. Self-reported use of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana and other illegal drugs. Correlates examined: environmental, such as peer culture and family-related; behavior-related such as antisocial behavior, truancy and anomie; and psychological factors such as self-esteem and depressive mood. Findings: Separate logistic regressions for the two genders produced a set of psychosocial correlates common to the use of all legal and illegal substances. The strongest were peer and older sibling models of use, and peer-oriented lifestyle, followed by patterns of antisocial behavior and truancy. Family-related variables such as not living with both parents, parental monitoring and relationships with parents were less significant. Self-esteem and depressive mood were not significant. Girls' use of substances, especially illegal ones, showed stronger associations than boys' with a deviant behavior pattern. Few interactions between country and other correlates were significant. Conclusions: Common correlates can be identified across countries. Older siblings' and peers' substance have a strong impact on adolescents' use. Preventive interventions should include all substances with addictive potential. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.