Genome-wide mapping of in vivo protein-DNA interactions

In vivo protein-DNA interactions connect each transcription factor with its direct targets to form a gene network scaffold. To map these protein-DNA interactions comprehensively across entire mammalian genomes, we developed a large-scale chromatin immunoprecipitation assay ( ChIPSeq) based on direct ultrahigh-throughput DNA sequencing. This sequence census method was then used to map in vivo binding of the neuron-restrictive silencer factor ( NRSF; also known as REST, for repressor element-1 silencing transcription factor) to 1946 locations in the human genome. The data display sharp resolution of binding position [ +/- 50 base pairs ( bp)], which facilitated our finding motifs and allowed us to identify noncanonical NRSF-binding motifs. These ChIPSeq data also have high sensitivity and specificity [ ROC ( receiver operator characteristic) area >= 0.96] and statistical confidence ( P < 10(-4)), properties that were important for inferring new candidate interactions. These include key transcription factors in the gene network that regulates pancreatic islet cell development.