Fundamental and higher mode inversion of dispersed GPR waves propagating in an ice layer

Dispersion of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) waves can occur when they are trapped in a layer. In this paper, we analyze the modal propagation of GPR pulses through a layer of ice that is overlying water. Dispersed transverse electric (TE) waves that are trapped in the waveguide have larger amplitudes I ban the critically refracted waves that travel through air, whereas the transverse magnetic (TM) critically refracted waves traveling through air are more dominant than the trapped dispersed TM waves. This can be explained by the leaky waveguide behavior of the ice layer. The reflection coefficients for the waves incident on the ice-water interface show that the TM modes are more leaky than the TE modes. Still, clear dispersion is observed in both cases, which depends on the permittivity and thickness of the ice. Similar to inversion of dispersed Rayleigh waves, these parameters can be estimated by calculating phase-velocity spectra, picking dispersion curves, and inverting the dispersion curves using a combined local and global minimization procedure. Synthetic data show several higher order modes of which separate and combined inversions return the input modeling parameters accurately. Experimental data acquired on a frozen lake show strong dispersion for the TE and TM modes. The phase-velocity spectra of the field data show three TE and four TM modes of which separate and combined inversion of different modes return similar values for the ice thickness and known permittivity of ice. Due to the more leaky behavior of the TM modes, the TE inversion is better constrained and more suitable for inversion.