Sb-based electrode materials for rechargeable batteries

The demand for green energy conversion and storage for various applications, such as portable electronics, electric vehicles, and large-scale power stations, has boosted the exploration of advanced energy storage technologies. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), and liquid-metal batteries (LMBs) meet the different requirements of high-energy density, low cost, and large-scale energy storage, respectively. Currently, designing and synthesizing appropriate electrode materials with high performance, abundant natural availability, and low cost are the main challenges for rechargeable battery technology. Recent studies have demonstrated that Sb-based materials are promising electrode candidates for LIBs, SIBs, and LMBs because of their relatively low cost and high electrochemical performance. This review critically presents recent developments in Sb-based electrode materials, including storage mechanisms, synthesis strategies, and applications in LIBs, SIBs, and LMBs. It also presents challenges and prospects on further improving Sb-based electrode materials for real applications.