Sampling in schools and large institutional buildings: Implications for regulations, exposure and management of lead and copper

Legacy lead and copper components are ubiquitous in plumbing of large buildings including schools that serve children most vulnerable to lead exposure. Lead and copper samples must be collected after varying stagnation times and interpreted in reference to different thresholds. A total of 130 outlets (fountains, bathroom and kitchen taps) were sampled for dissolved and particulate lead as well as copper. Sampling was conducted at 8 schools and 3 institutional (non-residential) buildings served by municipal water of varying corrosivity, with and without corrosion control (CC), and without a lead service line. Samples included first draw following overnight stagnation (>8h), partial (30 s) and fully (5 min) flushed, and first draw after 30 min of stagnation. Total lead concentrations in first draw samples after overnight stagnation varied widely from 0.07 to 19.9 mu g Pb/L (median: 1.7 mu g Pb/L) for large buildings served with non-corrosive water. Higher concentrations were observed in schools with corrosive water without CC (0.9-201 mu g Pb/L, median: 14.3 mu g Pb/L), while levels in schools with CC ranged from 0.2 to 45.1 mu g Pb/L (median: 2.1 mu g Pb/L). Partial flushing (30 s) and full flushing (5 min) reduced concentrations by 88% and 92% respectively for corrosive waters without CC. Lead concentrations were <10 mu g Pb/L in all samples following 5 min of flushing. However, after only 30 min of stagnation, first draw concentrations increased back to >45% than values in 1st draw samples collected after overnight stagnation. Concentrations of particulate Pb varied widely (>= 0.02-846 mu g Pb/L) and was found to be the cause of very high total Pb concentrations in the 2% of samples exceeding 50 mu g Pb/L. Pb levels across outlets within the same building varied widely (up to 1000X) especially in corrosive water (0.85 -851 mu g Pb/L after 30MS) confirming the need to sample at each outlet to identify high risk taps. Based on the much higher concentrations observed in first draw samples, even after a short stagnation, the first 250mL should be discarded unless no sources of lead are present. Results question the cost-benefit of daily or weekly flushing as a remediation strategy. As such, current regulatory requirements may fail to protect children as they may not identify problematic taps and effective mitigation measures. (C) 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.