Influences of Breakfast on Clock Gene Expression and Postprandial Glycemia in Healthy Individuals and Individuals With Diabetes: A Randomized Clinical Trial

OBJECTIVE The circadian clock regulates glucose metabolism by mediating the activity of metabolic enzymes, hormones, and transport systems. Breakfast skipping and night eating have been associated with high HbA(1c) and postprandial hyperglycemia after lunch and dinner. Our aim was to explore the acute effect of breakfast consumption or omission on glucose homeostasis and clock gene expression in healthy individuals and individuals with type 2 diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS In a crossover design, 18 healthy volunteers and 18 volunteers with 14.5 +/- 1.5 years diabetes, BMI 30.7 +/- 1.1 kg/m(2), and HbA(1c) 7.6 +/- 0.1% (59.6 +/- 0.8 mmol/mol) were randomly assigned to a test day with breakfast and lunch (YesB) and a test day with only lunch (NoB). Postprandial clock and clock-controlled gene expression, plasma glucose, insulin, intact glucagon-like peptide 1 (iGLP-1), and dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) plasma activity were assessed after breakfast and lunch. RESULTS In healthy individuals, the expression level of Per1, Cry1, Ror, and Sirt1 was lower (P < 0.05) but Clock was higher (P < 0.05) after breakfast. In contrast, in individuals with type 2 diabetes, Per1, Per2, and Sirt1 only slightly, but significantly, decreased and Ror increased (P < 0.05) after breakfast. In healthy individuals, the expression level of Bmal1, Ror, and Sirt1 was higher (P < 0.05) after lunch on YesB day, whereas the other clock genes remained unchanged. In individuals with type 2 diabetes, Bmal1, Per1, Per2, Rev-erb, and Ampk increased (P < 0.05) after lunch on the YesB day. Omission of breakfast altered clock and metabolic gene expression in both healthy and individuals with type 2 diabetes. CONCLUSIONS Breakfast consumption acutely affects clock and clock-controlled gene expression leading to normal oscillation. Breakfast skipping adversely affects clock and clock-controlled gene expression and is correlated with increased postprandial glycemic response in both healthy individuals and individuals with diabetes.