Recent advances in the molecular level modification of electrodes for bioelectrochemistry

Advances in the fabrication of bioelectrochemical interfaces has provide us with something close to molecular level control over both the immobilisation of biomolecules on an electrode and the environment around which they are immobilised. This control can be both lateral, by changing the ratio of components in a mixed monolayer, and vertical using rigid self-assembling molecules. The most important advances in the last few years are the development of methods that allow amperometric systems to operate in complex biological fluids and new methods of characterising the bioelectrochemical interfaces at the molecular level at which they are designed. The purpose of this Current Opinion review is to outline the advances in low impedance antifouling coatings on electrodes for bioelectrochemistry and the use of cutting edge fluorescence microscopy to characterise the function of these interfaces in the environments they are intended to be used in with high spatial resolution.