Dioxins and furans: A review from chemical and environmental perspectives

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the environment have generated great interest within the scientific community due to their toxic effect to animal, human health, and the environment. This review encompasses the historical presence of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) in the world-wide environment. Information on exposure indicated that the main route of exposure of dioxins/furans to humans is through ingestion, which is discussed in this paper. In addition, we present a thorough assessment of sampling, methods for extraction, and analysis as well as the photodegradation of dioxins under various conditions. In general, extraction methods including USEPA 8290 are the most used with high resolution gas chromatography/high resolution mass spectrometry (HRGC/HRMS) preferred as a detection tool. Moreover, a detailed compilation of studies of the PCDD/F concentrations and environmental sources from major industrial regions in several countries are presented. In summary, the major sources of dioxins in the worldwide environment include combustion and industrial sources with major challenges related to the lack of data availability in the Middle East especially with the current Warfare conflicts in the region.