Understanding the Unusual Reduction Mechanism of Pd(II) to Pd(I): Uncovering Hidden Species and Implications in Catalytic Cross-Coupling Reactions

The reduction of Pd(II) intermediates to Pd(0) is a key elementary step in a vast number of Pd-catalyzed processes, ranging from cross-coupling, C-H activation, to Wacker chemistry. For one of the most powerful new generation phosphine ligands, PtBu3, oxidation state Pd(I), and not Pd(0), is generated upon reduction from Pd(II). The mechanism of the reduction of Pd(II) to Pd(I) has been investigated by means of experimental and computational studies for the formation of the highly active precatalyst {Pd(mu-Br)(PtBu3)}(2). The formation of dinuclear Pd(I), as opposed to the Pd(0) complex, (tBu(3)P)(2)Pd was shown to depend on the stoichiometry of Pd to phosphine ligand, the order of addition of the reagents, and, most importantly, the nature of the palladium precursor and the choice of the phosphine ligand utilized. In addition, through experiments on gram scale in palladium, mechanistically important additional Pd- and phosphine-containing species were detected. An ionic Pd(II)Br-3 dimer side product was isolated, characterized, and identified as the crucial driving force in the mechanism of formation of the Pd(I) bromide dimer. The potential impact of the presence of these side species for in situ formed Pd complexes in catalysis was investigated in Buchwald Hartwig, alpha-arylation, and Suzuki-Miyaura reactions. The use of preformed and isolated Pd(I) bromide dimer as a precatalyst provided superior results, in terms of catalytic activity, in comparison to catalysts generated in situ.