A highly stable (SnOx-Sn)@few layered graphene composite anode of sodium-ion batteries synthesized by oxygen plasma assisted milling

The (SnOx-Sn)@few layered graphene ((SnOx-Sn)@FLG) composite has been synthesized by oxygen plasma-assisted milling. Owing to the synergistic effect of rapid plasma heating and ball mill grinding, SnOx (1 <= x <= 2) nanoparticles generated from the reaction of Sn with oxygen are tightly wrapped by FLG nanosheets which are simultaneously exfoliated from expanded graphite, forming secondary micro granules. Inside the granules, the small size of the SnOx nanoparticles enables the fast kinetics for Na+ transfer. The in-situ formed FLG and residual Sn nanoparticles improve the electrical conductivity of the composite, meanwhile alleviate the aggregation of SnOx nanoparticles and relieve the volume change during the cycling, which is beneficial for the cyclic stability for the Na+ storage. As an anode material for sodium-ion batteries, the (SnOx-Sn)@FLG composite exhibits a high reversible capacity of 448 mAh g(-1) at a current density of 100 mA g(-1) in the first cycle, with 82.6% capacity retention after 250 cycles. Even when the current density increases to 1000 mA g(-1), this composite retains 316.5 mAh g(-1) after 250 cycles. With superior Na+ storage stability, the (SnOx-Sn)@FLG composite can be a promising anode material for high performance sodium-ion batteries. (C) 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.