Insights into the global flow pattern of manganese

Manganese is a necessary and irreplaceable metal resource for the steelmaking industry. The essentiality and non-substitutability make the vulnerability to supply restriction of manganese nonnegligible. With this concern, this study was conducted to present a global trade-linked material flow analysis (MFA) model of manganese for the year of 2017 to provide deep insight into its flow pattern. Using the MFA model, the global manganese flow in 305 categories of commodities within 249 countries was mapped. The results showed that 23.9 million tons (Mt) of manganese were supplied and used in 2017. An estimated 27.9 Mt of manganese contained in various commodities was traded between countries, 38% of which was contributed by the top ten trade flows. China, South Africa, Australia, Brazil, Gabon, the USA, India, Japan and Germany were the nine most important members of the global manganese trade flow community. The lack of a system for the complete recovery of Mn from end-of-life products and slag, and a trend towards increasing geographic concentration of Mn ore supplies, were identified as two areas of potential risk and concern. Corresponding policy recommendations are proposed to resolve these concerns. A more integrated recovery system of manganese needs to be considered, particularly for the developing lithium-ion battery applications. Establishment of national reserve needs to be put on the agenda for the large manganese consumers. High supply concentration of manganese refining and manufacturing stage, which is dominated by China, may need to be changed when prospective global manganese consumption structure changes.