Environmentally sustainable processes for the synthesis of hydroxyapatite

Hard tissue regeneration and regrowth have continued to be a challenge in the field of conventional medicine in this 21st century. Over the years, the regrowth of broken bones and diseased hard tissue has remained a major concern in medical research. Since the discovery of hydroxyapatite (HA), a bioceramic compound that possesses the ability to activate bone regrowth and bond directly with regenerated bone, it has subsequently become an indispensable biomaterial. Currently, it is being used across the medical fields due to its exceptional biocompatibility. This became plausible because the main mineral phase of mammalian bones is HA. It has found application in various medical fields like medical instruments, drug delivery, bone and tooth fillers, prosthetics, orthotics, and in-vitro implants. As the importance of HA geometrically increases, it is necessary to critically evaluate and propose the most economic process of synthesizing and manufacturing this important bioceramic material. This review, therefore, highlights the different sources of HA and the synthesis/production methods for each source with a strong emphasis on the environment. Thus, the appraisal was carried out based on the properties of the derived HA. Such properties include but are not limited to geometry, particle size, morphology, thermal stability, and stoichiometry to suggest the most economic and environmentally sustainable sources and processing routes.