Electrophysiological Evidence for Action-Effect Prediction

A central function of the human brain is prediction. Influential theoretical views suggest that we form predictions about forthcoming sensory outcomes that follow from our own actions and that anticipation of these outcomes is fundamental for action control. However, little is known about how predicted outcomes are represented at the neural level. We hypothesized that neural activity reflecting the anticipation of outcomes should precede action initiation. Following computational theories on action control, anticipation should be reflected in an outcome-selective reduction in neural activity. To test this, the present study recorded scalp electroencephalography to show that brain activity reflects action-effect specific representations before response initiation. We harnessed frequency entrainment to tag neural activity specific for particular action-effects. Participants engendered visual action-effects that were presented in flickering frequencies of 6 or 10 Hz, either according to a fixed cue-response mapping (Experiment 1) or freely chosen (Experiment 2). Results showed that perception of action-effects entrained a steady-state visual brain response specific to the perceived action-effect at either 6 or 10 Hz. More important, neural pattern reflecting action-effect specific representations emerged even before a response was given (i.e., without any visual stimulation). In line with theoretical accounts, perception of action-effects led to a specific increase in neural activity, while prediction of action-effects led to a specific decrease in neural activity. These findings provide neural evidence for the anticipation of action-effects before response initiation, supporting major theories of action control.