Recent advancements in microphysiological systems for neural development and disease

Microphysiological systems (MPSs) of the nervous system provide physiologically relevant models for studying disease and development. Historically, sourcing of neurons was a limitation of in vitro models. Recently, MPSs have been fabricated that use human-induced pluripotent stem cells and cocultures of multiple cell types, making MPSs increasingly useful toward mimicking in vivo conditions. These MPSs include models ranging from Alzheimer disease to peripheral nerve regeneration. Integrated electrodes are being used to probe and analyze neuronal responses directly from the MPS. New technological developments, such as 3D printing, have made MPSs more accessible and scalable. Commercial options are coming to market, including neuron specific chip companies: AxoSim, Xona Microfluidics, and MicroBrain BT, expanding further the accessibility of using MPSs for research in developmental biology, disease, and therapeutics. This review covers historical and future outlooks of innervated MPSs.