Health benefits of anthocyanins and molecular mechanisms: Update from recent decade

Anthocyanins are one of the most widespread families of natural pigments in the plant kingdom. Their health beneficial effects have been documented in many in vivo and in vitro studies. This review summarizes the most recent literature regarding the health benefits of anthocyanins and their molecular mechanisms. It appears that several signaling pathways, including mitogen- activated protein kinase, nuclear factor B-k, AMP- activated protein kinase, and Wnt/ beta- catenin, as well as some crucial cellular processes, such as cell cycle, apoptosis, autophagy, and biochemical metabolism, are involved in these beneficial effects and may provide potential therapeutic targets and strategies for the improvement of a wide range of diseases in future. In addition, specific anthocyanin metabolites contributing to the observed in vivo biological activities, structure- activity relationships as well as additive and synergistic efficacy of anthocyanins are also discussed. Abbreviations: ABCA1: ATP- binding cassette transporter A1; ABCG1: ATP- binding cassette transporter G1; ACC: acetyl- CoA carboxylase; ACO: acyl- CoA oxidase; AD: Alzheimer's disease; AIF: apoptosis- inducing factor; AMPK: AMPactivated protein kinase; AP- 1: activator protein- 1; aP2: adipocyte fatty acid binding protein; apo E-/-: apolipoprotein E- deficient; APP: amyloid precursor protein; Atg5: autophagy- related gene 5; ATGL: adipose triglyceride lipase; ATP: adenosine triphosphate; Ab: amyloid- beta peptide; C/ EBP delta: CCAAT/ enhancer- binding protein; COX- 2: cyclooxygenase- 2; CPT1A: carnitine palmitoyltransferase- 1A; CRP: C- reactive protein; eIF2 alpha: eukaryotic initiation factor 2asubunit; Endo G: endonuclease G; ERK: extracellular signal-regulated kinase; FFAs: free fatty acids; FoxO1: forkhead box O1; G6Pase: glucose-6-phosphatase; GFAT: glutamine: fructose 6-phosphate aminotransferase; Glut2: glucose transporter 2; Glut4: glucose transporter 4; GSK3b: glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta; HBP: hexosamine biosynthetic pathway; IL: interleukin; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase; JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase; LPL: lipoprotein lipaseand; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; MMP: matrix metalloproteinase; mtGPAT1: mitochondrial acyl-CoA: glycerol-sn-3-phosphate acyltransferase 1; mTOR: mammalian target of rapamycin; NF-kB: nuclear factor kB; NO: nitric oxide; OGD: oxygen-glucose deprivation; oxLDL: oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein; PARP: poly ADP-ribose polymerase; PCA: protocatechuic acid; PD: Parkinson's disease; PEPCK: phosphoenol pyruvate carboxykinase; PGE(2): prostaglandin E2; PhIP: 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [ 4,5-b] pyridine; PKCz: protein kinase C z; PPAR gamma: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma; Pt: petunidin; RCT: reverse cholesterol transport; ROS: reactive oxygen species; RR-ARFs: anthocyanin-rich fractions from red raspberries; SCI: spinal cord injury; SGLT1: sodium-dependent glucose transporter 1; STAT3: signal transducers and activators of transcription 3; TG: triglycerides; TNF: tumor necrosis factor; TRAFs: tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factors; UCP2: uncoupling protein 2; UDP-GlcNAc: UDP-N-acetylglucosamine production