In vivo ROS production and use of oxidative stress-derived biomarkers to detect the onset of diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and diabetes

Breakthroughs in biochemistry have furthered our understanding of the onset and progression of various diseases, and have advanced the development of new therapeutics. Oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are ubiquitous in biological systems. ROS can be formed nonenzymatically by chemical, photochemical and electron transfer reactions, or as the byproducts of endogenous enzymatic reactions, phagocytosis, and inflammation. Imbalances in ROS homeostasis, caused by impairments in antioxidant enzymes or non-enzymatic antioxidant networks, increase oxidative stress, leading to the deleterious oxidation and chemical modification of biomacromolecules such as lipids, DNA, and proteins. While many ROS are intracellular signaling messengers and most products of oxidative metabolisms are beneficial for normal cellular function, the elevation of ROS levels by light, hyperglycemia, peroxisomes, and certain enzymes causes oxidative stress-sensitive signaling, toxicity, oncogenesis, neurodegenerative diseases, and diabetes. Although the underlying mechanisms of these diseases are manifold, oxidative stress caused by ROS is a major contributing factor in their onset. This review summarizes the relationship between ROS and oxidative stress, with special reference to recent advancements in the detection of biomarkers related to oxidative stress. Further, we will introduce biomarkers for the early detection of neurodegenerative diseases and diabetes, with a focus on our recent work.