A review of hard carbon anode: Rational design and advanced characterization in potassium ion batteries

K-ion batteries (KIBs) have attracted tremendous attention and seen significant development because of their low price, high operating voltage, and properties similar to those of Li-ion batteries. In the field of development of full batteries, exploring high-performing and low-cost anode materials for K-ion storage is a crucial challenge. Owing to their excellent cost effectiveness, abundant precursors, and environmental benignancy, hard carbons (HCs) are considered promising anode materials for KIBs. As a result, researchers have devoted much effort to quantify the properties and to understand the underlying mechanisms of HC-based anodes. In this review, we mainly introduce the electrochemical reaction mechanism of HCs in KIBs, and summarize approaches to further improve the electrochemical performance in HC-based materials for K-ion storage. In addition, we also highlight some advanced in situ characterization methods for understanding the evolutionary process underlying the potassiation-depotassiation process, which is essential for the directional electrochemical performance optimization of KIBs. Finally, we raise some challenges in developing smart-structured HC anode materials for KIBs, and propose rational design principles and perspectives serving as the guidance for the targeted optimization of HC-based KIBs.

Automated summary

K-ion batteries (KIBs) have gained significant attention for their low cost, high operating voltage, and similarity to Li-ion batteries. This review focuses on the electrochemical reaction mechanism of hard carbons (HCs) in KIBs and summarizes approaches to improve the electrochemical performance of HC-based materials. The review also highlights advanced in situ characterization methods for understanding the evolutionary process of potassiation-depotassiation, essential for optimizing the electrochemical performance of KIBs.