Recent progress and perspectives on bi-functional oxygen electrocatalysts for advanced rechargeable metal-air batteries

With continued dependence on carbon-based fuels and rising concerns of environmental issues, the development of rechargeable metal-air batteries has recently gained tremendous attention. However, due to the slow kinetics of electrochemical oxygen reactions, the charge and discharge processes of a rechargeable metal-air battery must be catalyzed by using bi-functional catalysts that are active towards both the oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution reactions. This review focuses on recent developments in bi-functional catalysts and their catalytic activity in relation to materials composition, morphology, and crystal structure obtained through various synthetic techniques. The discussion is divided into sections based on the main types of recent bi-functional catalysts such as transition metal-and carbon-based materials, and hybrids which consist of the two. The subsections are then divided based on the metal substituents, types of dopant, degree of doping, and defect densities, discussing the effects of composition. In parallel, morphological effects on the catalytic activity, such as unique nanostructured design, surface area enhancements, and porosity, are also discussed. Currently, bifunctional oxygen electrocatalyst research is heading in the direction of reducing the loading of precious metals, and developing cost-competitive non-precious metal-and carbon-based catalysts to enable commercialization of rechargeable metal-air batteries for various applications including electric-drive vehicles and smart-grid energy storage. To understand the origin of bi-functional catalytic activity, future catalyst research should be conducted in combination with in situ characterizations, and computational studies, which will allow exploitation of active sites to maximize the efficacy of bi-functional catalysts.