Sand, hearths, lithics and a bit of bioturbation: Site formation processes at Umhlatuzana rockshelter, South Africa

Umhlatuzana rockshelter is known for its continuous record of Middle and Later Stone Age lithic assemblages. This study presents multiproxy geoarchaeological data (micromorphology, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy) to reconstruct the depositional and post-depositional history of the site. Although the Stone Age deposits macroscopically appear homogeneous, micromorphological analysis reveals the existence of primary, unaltered depositional microlayering throughout the sequence. Sediments related to combustion activities on-site are observed in both the Holocene and Pleistocene deposits. Post-depositional geochemical alterations result in the formation of several phosphatic minerals that significantly affect the site's preservation conditions. One of those is vashegyite, a rare magnesium phosphate mineral related to acidic and moist sedimentary environments. Bioturbation features are prominent at the microscale, but sediment mixing does not seem to affect the vertical distribution of the artifacts. The observation of horizontal microlayering in both the Pleistocene and Holocene illuminates the dominant mechanism of sedimentation throughout the site's 70,000-year occupational history. It moreover shows that the lithics can be analysed as coherent assemblages.

Automated summary

This study uses multiproxy geoarchaeological data to reconstruct the depositional and post-depositional history of Umhlatuzana rockshelter. Micromorphological analysis reveals the existence of primary depositional layers and sediments related to combustion activities. Post-depositional geochemical alterations result in the formation of phosphatic minerals. Bioturbation features are observed at the microscale, but do not affect the vertical distribution of artifacts. The presence of horizontal microlayering throughout the site's 70,000-year occupational history is also highlighted.