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Article
Chemistry, Physical
Samuel V. Somerville et al.
Summary: Enzymes with multiple active sites and control over the solution environment enable the formation of complex products from simple reactants. We mimic this concept using nanoparticles to facilitate the electro-chemical carbon dioxide reduction reaction. By altering the rate of CO2 delivery, the activity of the CO producing site, and the applied potential, we show that stable nanoparticles with lower CO formation activity can produce greater amounts of hydrocarbon products. This highlights the importance of the local solution environment and the stability of the catalyst in cascade reactions.
JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY C
(2023)
Article
Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
Pengfei Wei et al.
Summary: Tuning catalyst microenvironments by electrolytes and organic modifications improves the performance of CO2 electrolysis. The influence of mixed CO/CO2 feeds from incomplete industrial combustion on catalyst microenvironments has been investigated. CO/CO2 co-electrolysis over CuO nanosheets was studied in an alkaline membrane electrode assembly electrolyser. The optimized conditions achieved high Faradaic efficiency, partial current density, selectivity, and yield, outperforming thermocatalytic CO hydrogenation. The scale-up demonstration using an electrolyser stack showed high rates of ethylene and acetate formation.
NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Min Wang et al.
Summary: The coupling of CO-generating molecular catalysts with copper electrodes in tandem schemes is a promising strategy to boost the formation of multi-carbon products in the electrocatalytic reduction of CO2. The spatial distribution of the two components in molecular-based tandem systems has not been well explored. This study examines the importance of the relative spatial distribution of Co-phthalocyanine (CoPc) and Cu nanocubes (Cu-cub) on the performance of tandem catalysts. It is found that a direct contact between the CO-generating molecular catalyst and the Cu is crucial for promoting C-C coupling, indicating a surface transport mechanism between the two components of the tandem catalyst.
Review
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Tianyao Gong et al.
Summary: This article discusses the potential of electrochemical methods for synthesizing ordered intermetallics at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Electrochemical dealloying and electrochemical deposition methods have proven to be effective in synthesizing phases that are typically inaccessible under ambient conditions. The electrocatalytic performance of these intermetallics was also assessed and showed improved performance compared to commercial Pd/C and Pt/C catalysts, with lower coverages of spectator species. Furthermore, these materials exhibited improved methanol tolerance.
ACCOUNTS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Chaolong Wei et al.
Summary: This study designs a 3D tandem catalyst electrode with silver nanoparticles to generate CO as an intermediate product for CO2 reduction. The study reveals that prolonging the CO diffusion path length is crucial for improving CO utilization and selectivity to C2+ products. The experimental results demonstrate high Faradaic efficiencies of 64% (H-cell) and 70% (flow cell) for C2+ products.
ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Valery Okatenko et al.
Summary: Researchers have successfully synthesized CuGa nanoparticles and demonstrated that alloying Cu with Ga greatly improves the stability of the nanocatalysts. In particular, CuGa nanoparticles containing 17% Ga preserved most of their CO2RR activity for at least 20 hours, while Cu nanoparticles of the same size reconstructed and lost their CO2RR activity within 2 hours.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Peng-Cheng Chen et al.
Summary: Silver-copper (AgCu) bimetallic catalysts exhibit high mobility of Cu in CO2RR conditions, leading to leaching, detachment, and agglomeration as new particles. The phase separation of Ag and Cu into Cu-rich and Ag-rich grains occurs during the reaction, approaching thermodynamic values. The role of AgCu phase boundaries is highlighted, and the metallic state of Cu in AgCu is confirmed as the catalytically active sites during CO2RR. This work provides a comprehensive understanding of the chemical and structural evolution behavior of AgCu catalysts in CO2RR.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Shaoxuan Ren et al.
Summary: In this study, the impact of catalyst aggregation on the catalytic behavior of immobilized molecular electrocatalysts for the CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) is investigated. The researchers used operando Raman spectroscopy to study the CO2RR mediated by a layer of cobalt phthalocyanine (CoPc) immobilized on the cathode of an electrochemical flow reactor. Their findings suggest that immobilized molecular catalysts need to be dispersed on conductive supports to prevent aggregation and obtain reliable performance data. The insights from this study were used to develop an improved CO-forming immobilized molecular catalyst, which exhibited high selectivity, partial current density, and durability in a flow cell.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Steve P. Cronin et al.
Summary: The modification of a Cr-Ga oxide electrocatalyst through the introduction of nickel generates a high faradaic efficiency in producing 1-butanol. At certain potentials, 3-hydroxybutanal becomes the primary product. Mechanistic studies show that formate is the initial CO2 reduction product and acetaldehyde is the key intermediate.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
(2023)
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Jin Zhang et al.
Summary: In this study, the authors demonstrate that asymmetric CO binding at confined nanointerfaces can enhance CO2 electroreduction to multi-carbon products. Through alloying strategies, neighbouring binary sites enable improved CO2 utilization and C-C coupling efficiency in acid conditions. These findings offer a potential approach for long-term storage of renewable electricity in valuable multi-carbon chemicals.
NATURE COMMUNICATIONS
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Kun Qi et al.
Summary: A supersaturation strategy was employed to electrosynthesize 2-propanol from CO2 using highly carbonated electrolytes. The CuAg alloy catalyst exhibited high performance for 2-propanol production with a faradaic efficiency of 56.7% and at a specific current density of 59.3 mA cm(-2).
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Ning Ling et al.
Summary: Electrochemical CO2 reduction (CO2R) in acidic media with Cu-based catalysts tends to suffer from lowered selectivity towards multicarbon products. Tandem catalysis, using a CO generating catalyst (e.g. Ag) in close proximity to increase *CO coverage on Cu, is impeded in acidic electrolyte. Co-reduction experiments of CO2 and CO mixtures with Cu and CuAg catalysts provide evidence for tandem catalysis in neutral media and its curtailment under acidic conditions. Density functional theory simulations suggest that the presence of H3O+ weakens the *CO binding energy of Cu, preventing effective utilization of tandem-supplied CO. These findings provide insights into the tandem catalysis reaction pathway and important design considerations for effective CO2R in acidic media.
ANGEWANDTE CHEMIE-INTERNATIONAL EDITION
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Wenqiang Gao et al.
Summary: In this study, the correlation between CO binding energy and Faradaic efficiencies (FE) for C2+ products in the electrochemical CO2 reduction reactions (CO2RR) was experimentally verified for the first time. The relative abundance of Cu sites active for the CO2-to-CO conversion and the further reduction of CO was identified as another key descriptor.
ANGEWANDTE CHEMIE-INTERNATIONAL EDITION
(2023)
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Wenzhe Niu et al.
Summary: This study introduces a Pb-doped Cu catalyst with atomic Pb-concentrated grain boundaries for CO reduction to n-propanol. The Pb-rich Cu grain boundary sites exhibit stable low coordination and achieve a higher surface CO coverage, leading to improved CO-to-n-propanol selectivity and energy conversion efficiency.
NATURE COMMUNICATIONS
(2023)
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Tim Moeller et al.
Summary: This study presents the design and analysis of a complete low-temperature, neutral-pH tandem CO2 electrolyzer cell chain. By coupling two different electrolyzer cells, the system achieves significantly enhanced production rates for C2+ chemicals and fuels directly from CO2 feeds. The results demonstrate the kinetic and practical energetic benefits of coupled tandem electrolyzer cell systems.
NATURE COMMUNICATIONS
(2023)
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Cheng Du et al.
Summary: This paper presents a cascade AgCu single-atom and nanoparticle electrocatalyst that achieves high selectivity for multicarbon products. The prepared catalyst demonstrates a Faradaic efficiency of over 94% and shows great potential for practical applications.
NATURE COMMUNICATIONS
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Alessandro Perazio et al.
Summary: Gas-fed flow cells using acidic catholyte can achieve high-rate electrochemical CO2 reduction (CO2R) with efficient CO2 conversion and release. In contrast to alkaline and neutral conditions where CO2 is lost as (bi)carbonate, the low pH of the electrolyte solution in acidic solutions allows for CO2 regeneration and avoids permanent CO2 loss. The presented bipolar-membrane-based gas-fed flow cell demonstrates selective CO2R products at one outlet and a nearly product-free stream of CO2 at another outlet, enabling improved overall CO2 utilization through straightforward CO2 recovery and recycling.
ACS ENERGY LETTERS
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Ezra L. Clark et al.
Summary: This paper investigates the effect of intermetallic alloying on the catalytic activity in electrochemical reactions. It is found that intermetallic phases allow for independent control over d-band energetics and work function, resulting in enhanced intrinsic activity for CO2 reduction. However, the propensity of these alloys to segregate in air poses a significant obstacle to studying their electrocatalytic activity.
ACS ENERGY LETTERS
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Wenqiang Gao et al.
Summary: The electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction on Cu is believed to occur via two consecutive and orthogonal reaction steps, but we provide experimental evidence challenging this assumption. We show that CO2 promotes the electrochemical CO reduction reaction and there are at least two types of Cu sites, with one being more active in CO2-to-CO conversion and the other favoring further reduction to C2+. CO adsorbed on Cu-CO is more active towards C2+ formation compared to Cu-CO2. Isotopic labelling experiments suggest Cu-CO2 and Cu-CO correspond to Cu(111)-like and defect sites, respectively. These insights suggest the possibility of controlling selectivity in the CO2 reduction reaction.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Reihaneh Amirbeigiarab et al.
Summary: We have observed the spontaneous formation of low-coordinated Cu surface species near the onset of CO2 electrocatalytic reduction. This process starts with CO-induced Cu nanocluster formation and leads to irreversible surface restructuring. Subsequently, the nanoclusters disperse into Cu adatoms, stabilizing reaction intermediates on the surface. The observed self-induced formation of undercoordinated sites on the CO2-converting Cu catalyst surface can account for its reactivity and may be exploited for (re)generating active CO2RR sites through potentiodynamic protocols.
Article
Xiaoxia Chang et al.
Review
Energy & Fuels
David Wakerley et al.
Summary: Chemicals and fuels can be generated from CO2 via electrolysers that employ gas diffusion electrodes. This review discusses the key advances and remaining shortfalls of GDE-based CO2 electrolysers, as well as provides an overview of partial current densities, efficiencies, and stabilities achieved.
Article
Energy & Fuels
Xue Wang et al.
Summary: This study reports the development of catalysts that improve the electrosynthesis of n-propanol from CO2/CO electroreduction. The catalysts facilitate carbon-carbon coupling, stabilize intermediates, and promote CO adsorption, leading to enhanced selectivity and stability. The optimal electrocatalyst, based on silver-ruthenium co-doped copper, achieves high Faradaic efficiency and single-pass CO conversion, demonstrating the potential for profitable production of n-propanol.
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Yi-Rung Lin et al.
Summary: Ethylene is an important feedstock for various applications, and the development of catalysts and electrolyzers is crucial for efficient ethylene production. A tandem electrocatalyst composed of copper nanocubes and nickel-coordinated nitrogen-doped carbon is found to exhibit high selectivity and formation rate in converting CO2 into ethylene.
ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Yangbo Ma et al.
Summary: This study reports the synthesis of highly selective Ag-Cu Janus nanostructures for the electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 to multicarbon products. The Ag-Cu Janus nanostructures demonstrated superior selectivity and performance compared to Cu nanocubes. The study provides an effective strategy for designing advanced catalysts for the extensive application of CO2RR.
ADVANCED MATERIALS
(2022)
Review
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Justin C. Bui et al.
Summary: Electrochemical synthesis using renewable energy to convert feedstocks into chemicals and fuels is promising, but understanding phenomena in porous electrode systems is challenging. Continuum modeling aids in understanding observed behaviors and guiding next-generation device design. Simulating multiscale phenomena in porous electrodes helps understand and improve the performance of electrochemical synthesis devices.
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Xiangdong Kong et al.
Summary: Cu-based tandem nanocrystals are widely used in producing multicarbon (C2+) products via enhanced CO intermediate (*CO) coverage during CO2 electroreduction. By coupling CoPc with Cu in a gas diffusion electrode, a significantly higher faradaic efficiency for C2+ products was achieved compared to using Cu alone. In-depth understanding of the surface coverage-dependent C-C coupling mechanism was provided through in situ experiments and density functional theory calculations.
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Sheena Louisia et al.
Summary: The researchers developed a method called on-stream substitution of reactant isotope (OSRI) to investigate the significance of microenvironment in CO2 reduction on Cu surfaces. They found that a reservoir of CO molecules near the catalyst surface influenced the formation of multicarbons (C2+). The presence of a monolayer of CO intermediates on the surface did not provide enough CO molecules for efficient C-C coupling. The Cu nanoparticle ensemble showed a higher C2+ turnover compared to electropolished Cu foil due to its higher density of CO molecules per surface Cu atom and better C-C coupling ability.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
(2022)
Editorial Material
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Charles E. Creissen et al.
Summary: This article discusses the conversion of carbon dioxide into valuable multi-carbon products using Cu-based single-atom catalysts. The formation of transient clusters, which cannot be detected using ex-situ techniques, may be responsible for the production of C2+ products. The authors highlight the importance of operando characterization in defining active sites.
NATURE COMMUNICATIONS
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Hao Shen et al.
Summary: This study reports the selective reduction of CO to acetate using Cu-Pd bimetallic electrocatalysts and explores the underlying mechanism. The results demonstrate that the bimetallic catalyst exhibits high activity and selectivity for the conversion of CO to acetate.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Xiao Kun Lu et al.
Summary: The electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction is a promising method for generating renewable fuels and commodities using renewable energy. By tuning the properties of copper oxide, the stability of undercoordinated and higher-valence-state copper sites can be improved, thereby enhancing ECO2RR performance.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Tianyu Zhang et al.
Summary: In this study, we developed segmented gas-diffusion electrodes (s-GDEs) to improve the management of CO intermediates in tandem catalysts, thereby enhancing C2+ Faradaic efficiency and current density.
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Jiajie Hou et al.
Summary: This study reveals for the first time the upper limit of CO coverage on Cu surfaces under electrocatalytic conditions, and shows that an increase in CO coverage can affect the selectivity of CO reduction reactions.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
(2022)
Review
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Domenico Grammatico et al.
Summary: This review discusses the state of the art of different catalyst-support systems for CO2RR and proposes necessary steps for future developments. The article emphasizes the need for standard benchmarking for comparison of these support systems and the development of advanced techniques to aid rational design principles.
ANGEWANDTE CHEMIE-INTERNATIONAL EDITION
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Yi Xie et al.
Summary: Renewable electricity-powered CO2 reduction to multi-carbon (C2+) products is a promising route for low-carbon-footprint fuels and chemicals. Acidic conditions offer a solution to the consumption of input CO2 by the electrolyte, but also promote the hydrogen evolution reaction. This study presents a design strategy that suppresses the activity of hydrogen evolution reaction by maximizing the co-adsorption of CO and CO2 on Cu-based catalysts.
Review
Chemistry, Physical
Daniela Mendoza et al.
Summary: This article discusses the application of X-ray spectroscopy in the study of electrocatalysts and explores techniques for detecting non-electroactive species.
CURRENT OPINION IN COLLOID & INTERFACE SCIENCE
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Chubai Chen et al.
Summary: This study demonstrates the possibility of achieving asymmetric C-C coupling on a copper surface and thereby promoting the conversion of CO2 into multicarbon oxygenates. By adjusting the generation rates of CH4 and CO, the production rate of oxygenates can be maximized.
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Min Wang et al.
Summary: Copper-based tandem schemes are promising strategies to enhance multi-carbon product formation in the electrocatalytic CO2 reduction reaction. By coupling a CO-generating catalyst with copper nanocatalysts, the selectivity for ethylene production can be significantly increased.
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Jie Zhang et al.
Summary: In this study, Ag@C@Cu core-shell catalysts were synthesized to isolate the influence of the tandem effect on the selectivity of multi-carbon products. It was found that the locally increased CO concentration promoted the formation of ethanol and the selectivity of ethanol was optimized by tuning the thickness of the Cu shell.
CELL REPORTS PHYSICAL SCIENCE
(2022)
Review
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Janis Timoshenko et al.
Summary: X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) is a crucial method for investigating the structure and composition of heterogeneous catalysts, revealing the nature of active sites and establishing links between structural motifs, local electronic structure, and catalytic properties. Recent advancements in instrumentation and data analysis approaches for deciphering X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) and extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectra have been discussed, with emphasis on applications in the field of heterogeneous catalysis, particularly in electrocatalysis.
Review
Chemistry, Physical
Dilan Karapinar et al.
Summary: This Review highlights the importance and challenges of electrochemical CO2 reduction for ethanol production, categorizing and evaluating the performance of copper-based catalysts to aid in the design of more efficient catalysts for selective ethanol formation.
ACS ENERGY LETTERS
(2021)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Adnan Ozden et al.
Summary: CO2 electroreduction is a promising method to convert waste emissions into chemicals, but the process suffers from CO2 loss to carbonate, consuming a large amount of energy input. By coupling a cascade SOEC-MEA approach, the energy efficiency can be improved, reducing energy intensity.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Minjun Choi et al.
Summary: This study successfully achieved the conversion of carbon dioxide into 1-butanol on a phosphorus-rich copper cathode through a combination of faradaic and autonomous nonfaradaic reactions. The faradaic efficiency for 1-butanol formation reached 3.868%, indicating a promising new perspective for the C-C coupling reaction on Cu-based electrocatalysts.
ACS ENERGY LETTERS
(2021)
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Jianan Erick Huang et al.
Summary: Carbon dioxide electroreduction (CO2R) is being actively studied as a promising route to convert carbon emissions to valuable chemicals and fuels. A study found that concentrating potassium cations in the vicinity of electrochemically active sites accelerates CO2 activation to enable efficient CO2R in acid. The research achieved a high CO2R efficiency on copper at pH <1 with a single-pass CO2 utilization of 77%.
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Xue Wang et al.
Summary: Selective methane production from CO2 can be achieved by introducing Au into Cu to regulate the availability of *CO, leading to higher methane selectivity ratio and CO2-to-methane Faradaic efficiency.
NATURE COMMUNICATIONS
(2021)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Chao Zhan et al.
Summary: This study used operando Raman spectroscopy to investigate the potential-dependent reduction process of Cu2O nanocubes, revealing a correlation between CO coverage and the selectivity for multicarbon products. The research provides a theoretical basis for the high selectivity generation of multicarbon products.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Taewoo Kim et al.
Summary: This study demonstrates the influence of tensile strain on the selectivity of CO2 reduction towards higher value-added, multicarbon products. Tensile strain on the Cu(001) surface increases activity for multicarbon products by suppressing single-carbon products and enhancing CO insertion and hydrogenation. The shift in d-band center due to strain manipulation provides a valuable tool for the design of efficient CO2 electrocatalysts.
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Patrick Wilde et al.
Summary: Studies have found that bimetallic nanoparticles can generate high local CO concentrations during the electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction, leading to the instability of Cu catalysts. The results reveal an inherent trade-off between stability, selectivity, and activity in both systems.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Fengwang Li et al.
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
N. S. Romero Cuellar et al.
JOURNAL OF CO2 UTILIZATION
(2020)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Tianyu Zhang et al.
JOURNAL OF CATALYSIS
(2020)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Ying Chuan Tan et al.
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Rosa M. Aran-Ais et al.
NATURE COMMUNICATIONS
(2020)
Editorial Material
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Joshua A. Rabinowitz et al.
NATURE COMMUNICATIONS
(2020)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Xiaojie She et al.
CELL REPORTS PHYSICAL SCIENCE
(2020)
Article
Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
Kai Liu et al.
ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES
(2019)
Review
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Phil De Luna et al.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Ryan P. Jansonius et al.
ACS ENERGY LETTERS
(2019)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Ana Sofia Varela et al.
Article
Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
Xingli Wang et al.
NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY
(2019)
Review
Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
Zhi-Jian Zhao et al.
NATURE REVIEWS MATERIALS
(2019)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Jun Li et al.
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Jianfeng Huang et al.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
(2019)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Gurudayal et al.
ACS APPLIED ENERGY MATERIALS
(2019)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Yanwei Lum et al.
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Karin U. D. Calvinho et al.
ENERGY & ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
(2018)
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Jianfeng Huang et al.
NATURE COMMUNICATIONS
(2018)
Review
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Wenlei Zhu et al.
TOPICS IN CURRENT CHEMISTRY
(2018)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Carlos G. Morales-Guio et al.
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Sichao Ma et al.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
(2017)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Ezra L. Clark et al.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
(2017)
Review
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Zhi Wei Seh et al.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Yun Huang et al.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Jeremy T. Feaster et al.
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Baran Eren et al.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Ruud Kortlever et al.
JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY LETTERS
(2015)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Yin-Jia Zhang et al.
Review
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
J. K. Norskov et al.
Review
Chemistry, Physical
Bo Cao et al.
Summary: Combining CO2 conversion on various catalysts with CO reduction on copper is a promising strategy to achieve high selectivity and formation rate of highly reduced products.
