4.2 Editorial Material

Evolution of multiple prey defences: From predator cognition to community ecology

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Comparative and experimental studies on the relationship between body size and countershading in caterpillars

Yerin Hwang et al.

Summary: Countershading is a common camouflage strategy in the animal kingdom, where the dorsal surfaces are darker than the ventral surface to decrease detection by predators. This study investigated the association between body size and countershading in caterpillars and found weak evidence supporting a relationship. The results suggest that body size may not be a universal factor shaping the variation in countershading observed in caterpillars.

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Not just the sum of its parts: Geographic variation and nonadditive effects of pyrazines in the chemical defence of an aposematic moth

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Summary: The chemical defence of the wood tiger moth varies within and between populations, which is contradictory to the assumption that prey survival relies on the strength of defence. It was found that populations facing higher predation pressure have stronger chemical defences, suggesting that local predator selection plays a role. Additionally, the efficacy of chemical defence is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.

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Diverse strategies that animals use to deter intraspecific predation

Roshan Kumar Vijendravarma

Summary: Intraspecific predation is a common phenomenon in prey-predator systems, where predators within the same species provide benefits to conspecifics such as eliminating competitors for resources and mates. This review categorically summarizes the diverse forms of intraspecific predation and the strategies animals use to deter it, raising intriguing questions about their evolutionary significance for future research.

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The protective value of the colour and shape of the mountain katydid's antipredator defence

Julia L. Riley et al.

Summary: Deimatic behavior is a part of an antipredator strategy performed by prey when attacked, including camouflage and the display of a hidden aposematic signal. This study focused on the mountain katydid's antipredator strategy, specifically the putative aposematic signal. The results showed that the models most resembling real katydids were more likely to be attacked, suggesting that the deimatic phase of the display may have important protective value.

JOURNAL OF EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY (2023)

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Investigating signal modalities of aposematism in a poison frog

Adam M. M. Stuckert et al.

Summary: This study investigates the possibility of multimodality in the aposematic signal of the green-and-black poison frog. By testing the response of a non-visual predator to frog skin chemicals, it is found that experienced predators can avoid the poison frog based on olfactory cues alone, indicating the presence of non-visual information in the aposematic signal. However, naive predators do not show avoidance behavior, suggesting that olfactory-based avoidance is a learned response.

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How to fail in advertising: The potential of marketing theory to predict the community-level selection of defended prey

Emily Burdfield-Steel et al.

Summary: Economics and ecology face the challenge of scaling up from individual behavior to community-level effects. Biologists have used theories and frameworks from economics to understand animal behavior. Marketing has created frameworks that predict human consumer behavior at the community level, which can be applied to non-human consumers to understand their behavior in shaping communities. This study demonstrates and discusses the potential of marketing and human-consumer theory in bridging the gap from laboratory experiments to complex community dynamics using predator-prey interactions as a case study.

JOURNAL OF EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY (2023)

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Predator response to the coloured eyespots and defensive posture of Colombian four-eyed frogs

Tatiana L. Hernandez-Palma et al.

Summary: The Colombian four-eyed frog may gain protection from predation through its deimatic display, where it inflates its body and reveals eye-like markings. Our study found that the presence of eye markings alone may provide some protection, but there was no clear additive effect of defensive posture and eye markings on predation risk. Additionally, a defensive posture may help redirect predator attacks to non-vital body parts.

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Evolutionary transitions from camouflage to aposematism: Hidden signals play a pivotal role

Karl Loeffler-Henry et al.

SCIENCE (2023)

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Ontogenetic change in effectiveness of chemical defence against different predators in Oxycarenus true bugs

Jan Raska et al.

Summary: Prey species change their antipredator defence during ontogeny, which is connected to different potential predators over their life cycle. The reactions of spiders and birds to larvae and adults of two invasive true bug species with life-stage-specific chemical defence mechanisms differed significantly. Spiders were deterred by adult bugs' defences, while larvae defences were ineffective against them. Birds attacked larvae less often than adult bugs. The results indicate a predator-specific ontogenetic change in defence effectiveness, likely linked to the life-stage-specific composition of secretions.

JOURNAL OF EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY (2023)

Review Ecology

The evolution and ecology of multiple antipredator defences

David W. Kikuchi et al.

Summary: Prey often use multiple defences to avoid predation, both in different contexts and within a single predator encounter. The understanding of defence portfolio evolution is currently incomplete and focused on specific sensory systems or types of defences. This review seeks to build a comprehensive framework for understanding the evolution of multiple prey defences and identifies resource trade-offs, functional interactions, and synergistic effects as important factors influencing defence portfolios.

JOURNAL OF EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY (2023)

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Sequestration of Defenses against Predators Drives Specialized Host Plant Associations in Preadapted Milkweed Bugs (Heteroptera: Lygaeinae)

Georg Petschenka et al.

Summary: Host plant specialization in herbivorous insects varies greatly. This study found that milkweed bugs can colonize novel hosts through physiological adaptations and convergent phytochemistry, providing protection without affecting their growth or development.

AMERICAN NATURALIST (2022)

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A synthesis of deimatic behaviour

Eleanor Drinkwater et al.

Summary: This review aims to summarize the current knowledge of deimatic behaviors, also known as startle behaviors, and identify gaps in understanding. The authors propose a working hypothesis and discuss the available evidence for the evolution, ontogeny, causation, and survival value of deimatic behaviors using Tinbergen's Four Questions framework. The overall goal is to guide future research by suggesting ways to address the most pressing questions in this field.

BIOLOGICAL REVIEWS (2022)

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Size-dependent predation risk in cryptic prey

Matilda Q. R. Pembury Smith et al.

Summary: The study found that attack risk increased with size for disruptive phenotypes of prey, potentially breaking down the effectiveness of disruptive patterns at larger sizes. However, further research under controlled conditions is needed to distinguish the effects of initial detection and post-detection preferences on attack rates.

JOURNAL OF ETHOLOGY (2021)

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Why aren't warning signals everywhere? On the prevalence of aposematism and mimicry in communities

David W. Kikuchi et al.

Summary: Warning signals are a striking example of natural selection present in almost every ecological community, but they remain relatively scarce compared to the total prey available. They are thought to be governed by positive density-dependent selection, where they succeed better when more common. Factors influencing the prevalence of warning signals in prey assemblages include prey defenses, predator behavior, numerical responses of predators, diversity of alternative prey and mimics, and variability in ecological circumstances.

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First characterization of toxic alkaloids and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the cryptic dendrobatid Silverstoneia punctiventris

Mabel Gonzalez et al.

Summary: This study identified 33 different compounds, including 20 VOCs, in the skin of Silverstoneia punctiventris using HS-SPME/GC-MS. Some of these compounds have been reported as repellents, defense compounds, or pheromones. This is the first report of alkaloids and VOCs in the Silverstoneia genus, challenging the assumption that they are non-chemically defended. The findings suggest that amphibian alkaloids may have a dual function (olfactory at a distance, taste by contact) never explored before.

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Aposematism: Unpacking the Defences

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De novo Synthesis of Chemical Defenses in an Aposematic Moth

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Is countershading camouflage robust to lighting change due to weather?

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Multimodal Aposematic Signals and Their Emerging Role in Mate Attraction

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Distance-dependent pattern blending can camouflage salient aposematic signals

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Deimatism: a neglected component of antipredator defence

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Hidden in plain orange: aposematic coloration is cryptic to a colorblind insect predator

Scott A. Fabricant et al.

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Why are warning displays multimodal?

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Starlings uphold principles of economic rationality for delay and probability of reward

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Multisensory perception in uncertain environments

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Current trends in the evolutionary ecology of plant defence

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Hannah M. Rowland et al.

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Geographic and seasonal variation in alkaloid-based chemical defenses of Dendrobates pumilio from Bocas del Toro, Panama

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The complex business of survival by aposematism

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