Recent advances in phage defense systems and potential overcoming strategies

Bacteriophages are effective in the prevention and control of bacteria, and many phage products have been permitted and applied in the field. Because bacteriophages are expected to replace other antimicrobial agents like antibiotics, the antibacterial effect of bacteriophage has attracted widespread attention. Recently, the diversified defense systems discovered in the target host have become potential threats to the continued effective appli-cation of phages. Therefore, a systematic summary and in-depth illustration of the interaction between phages and bacteria is conducive to the development of this biological control approach. In this review, we introduce different defense systems in bacteria against phages and emphasize newly discovered defense mechanisms in recent years. Additionally, we draw attention to the striking resemblance between defense system genes and antibiotic resistance genes, which raises concerns about the potential transfer of phage defense systems within bacterial populations and its future impact on phage efficacy. Thus, attention should be given to the effects of phage defense genes in practical applications. This article is not exhaustive, but strategies to overcome phage defense systems are also discussed to further promote more efficient use of phages.

Automated summary

Bacteriophages have been proven to be effective in preventing and controlling bacteria, and their potential as alternatives to antibiotics has attracted significant attention. This article discusses various defense mechanisms in bacteria against phages and highlights the resemblance between defense system genes and antibiotic resistance genes. The potential transfer of phage defense systems within bacterial populations and its impact on phage efficacy are also examined. Strategies to overcome phage defense systems are proposed to enhance the practical applications of bacteriophages.