The Social and Reproductive Challenges Faced by Free-Roaming Horse (Equus caballus) Stallions

The stallion is a horse like any other horse, and social interactions are an important part of daily life. Although many free-roaming stallions fulfil their life's purpose, reproduction, only those with special characteristics enabling the formation and long tenure of a harem can sire a large number of offspring. The harem leader role is, however, a difficult one; the welfare of free-living stallions can be challenged by a range of factors. In this review, we discuss these challenges and explain how understanding the pressures that have shaped the evolution of stallion behaviour can be used to argue for the importance of the social environment to the stallion in captivity.Abstract: In captivity, intact male horses, due to their sexual drive, are usually socially isolated from other horses. This lifestyle strongly contrasts with that experienced by horses living in free-roaming, feral, or semi-feral conditions, where adult stallions have several roles in their social group, with successful reproduction being their primary drive. Reproductive skew in wild populations is high; many stallions will fail to reproduce at all, while others achieve high levels of reproductive success, siring a large number of foals. Successful stallions are those with particular characteristics and abilities that facilitate harem formation and tenure, allowing them to successfully take over a harem or establish a new one, protect mares from rival stallions, employ appropriate social behaviour to maintain group cohesion, and avoid kin-mating, for example through kin recognition mechanisms. Whilst the life of free-living stallions is far from stress-free, they retain ancestral adaptations to selection pressures (such as predation and competition) exhibited by their natural environment over thousands of years. Here, we discuss the challenges faced by free-living horse stallions, the roles they play in social groups, and their resulting social needs. By understanding these pressures and how stallions react to them, we highlighted the importance of the social environment for the stallion. It is hoped that a better understanding of wild stallions' lives will lead to their needs being more clearly met in captivity, reducing stereotypical behaviour and improving welfare.

Automated summary

Free-living stallions fulfill their purpose of reproduction and engage in social interactions with other horses. However, only stallions with special characteristics enabling harem formation and long tenure can sire a large number of offspring. The harem leader role is challenging and the welfare of free-living stallions can be compromised by various factors. Understanding the evolutionary pressures that shape stallion behavior highlights the importance of the social environment for captive stallions.