4.6 Review

Organic Bioelectronics Development in Italy: A Review

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Submicron Vertical Channel Organic Electrochemical Transistors with Ultrahigh Transconductance

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Summary: This paper introduces a method for the fabrication of integrated vertical channel OECTs with submicron channel length and demonstrates their ultrahigh transconductance. vOECTs are three-dimensional transistors finding significant applications in certain fields.

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Summary: The development of flexible and conformable devices is a significant step towards the realization of next-generation wearable and e-textile applications. Organic field-effect transistors (OFETs), specifically planar and vertical OFETs (POFETs and VOFETs), are particularly interesting due to their low-temperature solution processability, mechanical flexibility, and compatibility with plastic and biodegradable substrates. This in-depth review critically discusses the electrical, mechanical, and physical properties of POFETs and VOFETs, with a focus on key applications such as integrated logic circuits, light-emitting devices, memories, and sensors.

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Article Nanoscience & Nanotechnology

A n-type, Stable Electrolyte Gated Organic Transistor Based on a Printed Polymer

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Summary: Electrolyte-gated organic transistors (EGOTs) are promising and versatile devices for next-generation biosensors, neuromorphic systems, and low-voltage electronics. The proposed n-type EGOT is successfully integrated with an inkjet printed p-type device, demonstrating the possibility to build simple water-gated digital electronic circuits.

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Article Materials Science, Multidisciplinary

Submicrometer-Channel Organic Transistors with MHz Operation Range on Flexible Substrates by a Low-Resolution Fabrication Technique

Andrea Spanu et al.

Summary: This paper reports the development of a simple and reproducible approach for fabricating n-type organic field-effect transistors on flexible substrates. The key feature of the device, the channel length, is achieved using a self-alignment process that utilizes plasma etching of a thin Parylene C layer. The fabricated devices exhibit continuous operation and have an average transition frequency of 2.5 MHz and a maximum transition frequency of 5.5 MHz. This approach represents an interesting step towards miniaturizing flexible circuits in the field of large-area organic electronics, without the need for expensive and high-resolution techniques.

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Article Chemistry, Multidisciplinary

Understanding Effects of Ion Diffusion on Charge Carrier Mobility of Electrolyte-Gated Organic Transistor Using Ionic Liquid-Embedded Poly(3-hexylthiophene)

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Summary: This study investigates the effect of ion-embedded organic semiconductors on charge carrier mobility in organic transistors. The results show that different ion concentrations and electrolyte dielectrics can influence carrier mobility.

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Article Chemistry, Multidisciplinary

Supported Lipid Bilayers Coupled to Organic Neuromorphic Devices Modulate Short-Term Plasticity in Biomimetic Synapses

Claudia Lubrano et al.

Summary: This study investigates the short-term depression of a biomembrane-based organic electrochemical transistor (OECT) through supported lipid bilayer mediation. The ionic barrier behavior of the lipid bilayer is utilized to enhance the neuromorphic operation of the OECT. These biomimetic neuromorphic devices pave the way for in vitro platforms resembling synapses to study and characterize synaptic plasticity loss in neurodegenerative diseases.

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Article Materials Science, Multidisciplinary

Monitoring DNA Hybridization with Organic Electrochemical Transistors Functionalized with Polydopamine

Matteo Sensi et al.

Summary: Organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) are widely used in biosensing due to their high sensitivity, broad dynamic range, and low limit of detection. In this study, a fast and simple method of functionalizing the carbon gate of a fully screen-printed OECT using a polydopamine (PDA) film is presented, and the detection of complementary DNA strands is successfully demonstrated.

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Article Chemistry, Analytical

Design of a Portable Microfluidic Platform for EGOT-Based in Liquid Biosensing

Matteo Segantini et al.

Summary: In this study, a contamination-free microfluidic platform allowing differential measurements is proposed. The design enables exposure of the sensing electrode without contaminating the organic transistor device during sensing tests. The platform is validated by detecting bovine serum albumin (BSA) at a concentration of 1 pM.

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Article Chemistry, Multidisciplinary

Detection of Neurofilament Light Chain with Label-Free Electrolyte-Gated Organic Field-Effect Transistors

Kateryna Solodka et al.

Summary: Neurofilament light chain (NF-L) has emerged as a biomarker for neurological disorders. This study presents a method for detecting and quantifying NF-L in aqueous solutions using an organic electronic device. The biosensor shows high sensitivity and selectivity, making it a promising tool for diagnosing and monitoring neuronal damages.

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A large-area organic transistor with 3D-printed sensing gate for noninvasive single-molecule detection of pancreatic mucinous cyst markers

Lucia Sarcina et al.

Summary: Early diagnosis is crucial for curing neoplastic diseases like pancreatic-biliary cancer. However, current screening methods are not effective, and existing diagnostic techniques lack the sensitivity required for valid early diagnosis. In this study, the SiMoT platform was used to analyze DNA and protein markers of pancreatic mucinous cysts, providing a promising noninvasive method for timely and reliable identification of pancreatic cancer precursor cysts.

ANALYTICAL AND BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (2022)

Article Chemistry, Multidisciplinary

High-Performance Bioelectronic Circuits Integrated on Biodegradable and Compostable Substrates with Fully Printed Mask-Less Organic Electrochemical Transistors

Roberto Granelli et al.

Summary: This study proposes fully printed mask-less OECTs fabricated on thin-film biodegradable and compostable substrates, enabling monolithic integration of high-performance bioelectronics.
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Organic Electrochemical Transistors as Versatile Tool for Real-Time and Automatized Viral Cytopathic Effect Evaluation

Francesco Decataldo et al.

Summary: In-vitro viral studies play a crucial role in biomedical research, helping determine the biological properties of viruses, screen infection inhibitors, and evaluate safety. However, currently available technologies for virus evaluation have limitations in cost and only work with cytopathic viruses. The use of organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) offers a reliable, fast, and versatile method for real-time monitoring of viral infections that can be scaled up at low cost.

VIRUSES-BASEL (2022)

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Oxygen Gas Sensing Using a Hydrogel-Based Organic Electrochemical Transistor for Work Safety Applications

Francesco Decataldo et al.

Summary: Oxygen depletion in confined spaces is a serious danger for workers, and hydrogel-based organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) can serve as wearable and real-time oxygen gas sensors for work safety applications. These sensors have fast response, high sensitivity, and low power consumption, making them suitable for operators working in potentially hazardous confined spaces.

POLYMERS (2022)

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A Novel Biasing Scheme of Electrolyte-Gated Organic Transistors for Safe In Vivo Amplification of Electrophysiological Signals

Michele Di Lauro et al.

Summary: This study presents a novel operational mode, the common-drain/grounded-source configuration, for electrolyte-gated organic transistors to address the safety and stability issues in clinical settings. The configuration achieves maximum signal amplification while applying null net bias across the electrolyte, with no parasitic currents. The viability of this configuration is demonstrated by recording in vivo the somatosensory evoked activity in rats.

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Investigation and Modeling of the Electrical Bias Stress in Electrolyte-Gated Organic Transistors

Matteo Segantini et al.

Summary: Electrolyte-gated organic transistors (EGOTs) have limitations in terms of poor operational stability, which hampers their widespread use in biosensing applications. This study investigates the influence of electrical bias stress (EBS) on EGOTs operating in aqueous electrolytes in order to understand the causes of this unreliability. The performance variation of EGOTs is attributed to rearrangements in the polymer backbone induced by side chain oxidation, hydration, and interfacial electrochemical doping. A charge-trapping model is applied to fit the behavior of EGOTs in liquid dielectric, and the extracted material parameters are in good agreement with previous studies. A novel improvement to the model is proposed to successfully reproduce the degradation process in a specific polymer.

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Why a Diffusing Single-Molecule can be Detected in Few Minutes by a Large Capturing Bioelectronic Interface

Eleonora Macchia et al.

Summary: This study demonstrates that single-molecule detection at large-capturing interfaces is controlled by Brownian diffusion and yet is highly probable and fast.

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Green Materials and Technologies for Sustainable Organic Transistors

Fabrizio Torricelli et al.

Summary: The development of next-generation electronics and bioelectronics using emerging materials, technologies, and devices will bring intelligent objects, autonomous factories, and humans with artificial technology-based capabilities into reality.

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Organic Electrochemical Transistor with Molecularly Imprinted Polymer-Modified Gate for the Real-Time Selective Detection of Dopamine

Kan Tang et al.

Summary: Due to their low operation voltage, high transconductance, and good aqueous compatibility, organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) have found wide applications in sensing small redox-active molecules. However, selective detection of dopamine can be challenging. To improve the selectivity, a polypyrrole film was electrochemically deposited on the Pt gate electrode and then overoxidized, resulting in an OECT sensor with an overoxidized MIP (o-MIP/Pt) gate. This o-MIP/Pt gate showed similar detection limit as the bare Pt gate, but achieved a good selectivity towards dopamine compared to the interferent ascorbate.

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A Biomimetic, Biocompatible OECT Sensor for the Real-Time Measurement of Concentration and Saturation of Ions in Plant Sap

Francesco Gentile et al.

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Biocompatible organic electrochemical transistor on polymeric scaffold for wound healing monitoring

Aida Cavallo et al.

Summary: Currently, there is no wearable device available for continuous monitoring of ulcer status. This study aimed to produce an innovative scaffold for monitoring wound pH. The results suggest that the sensorised scaffold has potential application for monitoring wound healing process.

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Organic small molecule semiconductor materials for OFET-based biosensors

Jingwei Tao et al.

Summary: Biosensors based on organic field-effect transistors are advanced detection and monitoring devices with the ability to amplify signals. They have advantages such as high sensitivity, fast analysis speed, and simple operation, and have been widely used in the detection of DNA, protein, cell, glucose, and other biological substances.

BIOSENSORS & BIOELECTRONICS (2022)

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Synthesis of Highly Conductive Poly(3-hexylthiophene) by Chemical Oxidative Polymerization Using Surfactant Templates

Sanhanut Kesornsit et al.

Summary: Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) was synthesized by chemical oxidative polymerization using ferric chloride (FeCl3) as the oxidizing agent and various surfactants as shape templates. The effects of mole ratios, polymerization times, and surfactant types and concentrations on the electrical conductivity and particle properties were investigated. The results showed that P3HT synthesized with dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid (DBSA) at Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC) 6 had the highest electrical conductivity and particle size of 1530 +/- 227 nm. The thermal analysis revealed that surfactant-synthesized P3HT had higher stability and char yields. The electrical conductivity of DBSA-synthesized P3HT was further enhanced by doping with HClO4.

POLYMERS (2022)

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Fast and Reliable Electronic Assay of a Xylella fastidiosa Single Bacterium in Infected Plants Sap

Lucia Sarcina et al.

Summary: This article focuses on the detection of Xylella fastidiosa pathogen, and demonstrates an electrolyte-gated transistor for highly sensitive detection in sap samples. The proposed detection method has a lower limit of quantification and higher selectivity compared to the current gold standard qPCR method, enabling fast and accurate pathogen detection within 30 minutes.

ADVANCED SCIENCE (2022)

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Aerosol Jet Printed Organic Memristive Microdevices Based on a Chitosan:PANI Composite Conductive Channel

Roman Sajapin et al.

Summary: This study presents a chitosan:polyaniline-based ink for the manufacturing of the first organic memristive device with an aerosol jet printed conductive channel. The ink is eco-biofriendly and suitable for emulating neuro-morphic functions in bioelectronics. The study demonstrates the potential of aerosol jet printing technology in flexible organic electronic devices.

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Two-photon polymerization lithography enabling the fabrication of PEDOT:PSS 3D structures for bioelectronic applications

Amedeo Ruggiero et al.

Summary: This study presents an innovative fabrication method combining two-photon lithography and electrodeposition techniques for the realization of PEDOT:PSS-based conductive micropillars and 3D cage-like structures. The electrical and mechanical properties of PEDOT:PSS make it widely employed in bioelectronic applications.

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A programmable culture platform for hydrostatic stimulation and in situ pH sensing of lung cancer cells with organic electrochemical transistors

Cacocciola Nicol et al.

Summary: In this study, a programmable dynamic cell culture stimulation platform compatible with a standard multi-well plate in a CO2 incubator was developed. Mechanical stimulation of epithelial lung cell culture was achieved by cyclically increasing hydrostatic pressure within the culture chamber in a range of 1-12 kPa, mimicking human respiration rate. In addition, an in situ live pH-monitoring system based on PEDOT:PSS Organic ElectroChemical Transistors was designed and integrated into the compact platform, allowing simultaneous stimulation and pH sensing.

MICRO AND NANO ENGINEERING (2022)

Review Chemistry, Multidisciplinary

Organic Electrochemical Transistors for In Vivo Bioelectronics

Ali Nawaz et al.

Summary: Organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) are a focus of intense research with great potential in expanding the horizons of the bioelectronics industry. Their unique characteristics, such as electrolyte-gating and aqueous stability, make them particularly suitable for in vivo applications. OECTs form a soft mechanical contact with the biological milieu, ensuring a high signal-to-noise ratio and amplification capability, making them desirable for a wide range of in vivo applications.

ADVANCED MATERIALS (2021)

Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

Diurnal in vivo xylem sap glucose and sucrose monitoring using implantable organic electrochemical transistor sensors

Chiara Diacci et al.

Summary: Bioelectronic devices based on OECTs were developed for real-time monitoring of sugar fluctuations in the vascular tissue of trees. By implanting these sensors in vivo, it is possible to observe the metabolism of plants in real time and gain new insights into sugar homeostasis.

ISCIENCE (2021)

Article Chemistry, Multidisciplinary

Quantitative Prediction of the Electro-Mechanical Response in Organic Crystals

Alessandro Landi et al.

Summary: This study presents a new methodology to accurately predict the effects of external deformation on the charge transport properties of organic semiconductors. By investigating three prototypical materials, it was found that there is an order of magnitude difference in the intrinsic electro-mechanical response among organic semiconductors.

ADVANCED MATERIALS (2021)

Article Biophysics

Label free detection of miRNA-21 with electrolyte gated organic field effect transistors (EGOFETs)

Meenu Selvaraj et al.

Summary: A dual gate/common channel organic transistor architecture was designed for quantifying the concentration of one of the strands of miRNA-21 in solution, showing high sensitivity and low detection limit. The dose curves were described using an analytical function derived from a thermodynamic model, indicating the interplay of different equilibria. The lower binding free energy characteristic of hybridization on the device surface compared to reaction in solution suggests a partially inhibiting effect of the surface and presence of competing reactions.

BIOSENSORS & BIOELECTRONICS (2021)

Article Chemistry, Physical

Electrically conductive cotton fabric coatings developed by silica sol-gel precursors doped with surfactant-aided dispersion of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes fillers in organic solvent-free aqueous solution

Valentina Trovato et al.

Summary: A novel method is proposed to turn insulating cotton fabrics into electrically conductive materials by depositing VACNT, with shorter VACNT-based composite showing the best electrical conductivity. The developed e-textiles are suitable for application as humidity sensing smart textiles, demonstrating adequate response time and repeatability for end-users.

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The role of the polyelectrolyte composition in kinetic behaviour of organic memristive device

Regina Burganova et al.

Summary: In this research, the kinetic behavior of a two-terminal organic memristive device based on polyaniline/solid polyelectrolyte heterojunction was investigated with varying doping levels of a solid polyelectrolyte. It was found that reducing the dopant salt concentration in the solid polyelectrolyte can significantly increase the response time of the memristive device.

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A Wearable Electrochemical Gas Sensor for Ammonia Detection

Martina Serafini et al.

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SENSORS (2021)

Article Computer Science, Information Systems

Comparison of Sneo-Based Neural Spike Detection Algorithms for Implantable Multi-Transistor Array Biosensors

Gerardo Saggese et al.

Summary: This paper investigates the performance of spike detection algorithms for MTAs based on variants of the smoothed non-linear energy operator (SNEO), aiming to improve detection accuracy at low SNR and reduce dependence on neuronal firing rates. The study shows that the correlation of signals detected by MTA pixels benefits detection performance, but degrades when neurons have high firing rates. Various approaches and noise estimation techniques for the SNEO are presented and compared to enhance detection accuracy and reduce dependence on neuronal firing rates.

ELECTRONICS (2021)

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Implantable Organic Artificial Synapses Exhibiting Crossover between Depressive and Facilitative Plasticity Response

Gioacchino Calandra Sebastianella et al.

Summary: This study demonstrates an artificial synapse made of intracortical microelectrodes that exhibits either depressive or facilitative short-term plasticity (STP), controlled by the frequency of the input voltage. The proposed RLC circuit, including an inductance component, explains the physical origin of the observed STP and its two timescales related to charge accumulation in PEDOT/PSS.

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Interfacing aptamers, nanoparticles and graphene in a hierarchical structure for highly selective detection of biomolecules in OECT devices

Carlotta Peruzzi et al.

Summary: The novel gate electrode composed of graphene, gold nanoparticles, and aptamers achieves high selectivity and sensitivity in a biosensor, with a limit of detection in the picomolar range. The hierarchical organization reduces steric hindrance and false positives, making it suitable for various biomedical applications.

SCIENTIFIC REPORTS (2021)

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Application of PEDOT:PSS and Its Composites in Electrochemical and Electronic Chemosensors

Nan Gao et al.

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CHEMOSENSORS (2021)

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New insight in the operation mechanism of Organic Memristive Devices: The role of PEO-based polyelectrolyte solute ions

R. Sajapin et al.

Summary: This study delves into the operation mechanism of polyaniline-based Organic Memristive Devices, particularly focusing on the role of lithium ions in PEO as a solid polyelectrolyte, dopant ions, and the material of the gate electrode. The results indicate that cations have no decisive effect on the memristive switching, while the nature of the dopant anion plays a crucial role in device performance.

ORGANIC ELECTRONICS (2021)

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In Vitro Multiparametric Cellular Analysis by Micro Organic Charge-modulated Field-effect Transistor Arrays

Andrea Spanu et al.

Summary: Modern electrophysiology has advanced due to the development of sophisticated tools and materials, with the emergence of organic bioelectronics offering new advancements in cellular interfacing.

JOVE-JOURNAL OF VISUALIZED EXPERIMENTS (2021)

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Single-Molecule Bioelectronic Label-Free Assay of both Protein and Genomic Markers of Pancreatic Mucinous Cysts' in Whole Blood Serum

Eleonora Macchia et al.

Summary: Timely diagnosis of cystic pancreatic cancer precursors is crucial for improving low patient survival rates. Detecting markers like KRAS and MUC1 in blood can enhance diagnostic accuracy in a minimally invasive way.

ADVANCED ELECTRONIC MATERIALS (2021)

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The Role of the Internal Capacitance in Organic Memristive Device for Neuromorphic and Sensing Applications

Silvia Battistoni et al.

Summary: Organic memristive devices (OMDs) have a narrow switching window and implement neuromorphic characteristics at voltages <= 1 V, making them suitable for brain-like energy efficiency. Despite their potential in bioinspired electronics, guidelines for the design of devices and materials are still missing.

ADVANCED ELECTRONIC MATERIALS (2021)

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Towards In Vivo Monitoring of Ions Accumulation in Trees: Response of an in Planta Organic Electrochemical Transistor Based Sensor to Water Flux Density, Light and Vapor Pressure Deficit Variation

Davide Amato et al.

Summary: Research on organic electrochemical transistor (OECT) based sensors for monitoring plant traits shows potential applications in precision agriculture, with sensitivity to water flux density and light exposure. The study found that OECT response (R) in olive trees is inversely proportional to water flux density, but not directly affected by vapor pressure deficit (VPD) unless coupled with light. Additionally, the OECT sensor demonstrated promise in estimating daily nutrient accumulation rates in leaves, in agreement with chemical analysis, indicating new possibilities for precision agricultural systems.

APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL (2021)

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A Flexible, Transparent Chemosensor Integrating an Inkjet-Printed Organic Field-Effect Transistor and a Non-Covalently Functionalized Graphene Electrode

Stefano Lai et al.

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ADVANCED MATERIALS TECHNOLOGIES (2021)

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Physical insights from the Frumkin isotherm applied to electrolyte gated organic transistors as protein biosensors

Pamela Allison Manco Urbina et al.

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JOURNAL OF MATERIALS CHEMISTRY C (2021)

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Electrolyte-gated transistors for enhanced performance bioelectronics

Fabrizio Torricelli et al.

Summary: This primer discusses the various architectures and mechanisms of electrolyte-gated transistors (EGTs), as well as their applications in bioelectronics. It covers the materials and fabrication methods used in EGT structures, as well as the integration of functional bio-layers and biosystems. The primer also explores the advantages, limitations, possible optimizations, and future directions of EGTs in the field of bioelectronics.

NATURE REVIEWS METHODS PRIMERS (2021)

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K. Namsheer et al.

Summary: Conducting polymers are extensively studied for their outstanding properties and limitations in their pristine form can be overcome through hybridization with other materials. The synergetic effects of conducting polymer composites find wide applications in electrical, electronics, and optoelectronic fields. Understanding the transport models and physical properties of these composites is crucial for their various applications in fields like energy storage, photocatalysis, and biomedical applications.

RSC ADVANCES (2021)

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Ultimately Sensitive Organic Bioelectronic Transistor Sensors by Materials and Device Structure Design

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ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS (2020)

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Ion selective textile organic electrochemical transistor for wearable sweat monitoring

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ORGANIC ELECTRONICS (2020)

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PHYSICA STATUS SOLIDI A-APPLICATIONS AND MATERIALS SCIENCE (2020)

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Neuromorphic Organic Devices that Specifically Discriminate Dopamine from Its Metabolites by Nonspecific Interactions

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A mathematical model of OECTs with variable internal geometry

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Associative STDP-like learning of neuromorphic circuits based on polyaniline memristive microdevices

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SCIENTIFIC REPORTS (2020)

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APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS (2018)

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Organic memristive devices for perceptron applications

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