4.7 Review

GPR35: from enigma to therapeutic target

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Summary: Research has found that oxidized mitochondrial DNA (Ox-mtDNA) in myeloid cells activates the NLRP3 inflammasome, leading to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and interferons. In addition, Ox-mtDNA can be released into circulation through gasdermin D pores. Furthermore, Ox-mtDNA can convert transient inflammation into long-term immunopathology and serve as a biomarker for autoimmune diseases.

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GPR35 promotes neutrophil recruitment in response to serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA

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Summary: The G-protein-coupled receptor GPR35 is upregulated in activated neutrophils and plays a crucial role in their migration. The platelet-derived serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA acts as a ligand for GPR35 and promotes neutrophil recruitment to sites of inflammation via platelets and mast cells.
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Agonist-induced phosphorylation of orthologues of the orphan receptor GPR35 functions as an activation sensor

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Summary: G protein-coupled receptor 35 (GPR35) plays diverse roles in lower gut inflammation and pain. The phosphorylation of specific sites in GPR35a is crucial for its interaction with arrestin-3 and the internalization of the receptor. Phospho-site-specific antisera can effectively detect the activation status of GPR35 and be used in drug discovery and target validation programs.

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Activation of the GPR35 pathway drives angiogenesis in the tumour microenvironment

Ester Pagano et al.

Summary: The study demonstrates that GPR35 on macrophages can enhance tumor growth by stimulating neoangiogenesis and tumor tissue remodeling. Deletion of GPR35 significantly reduces tumor growth caused by the mutant tumor suppressor adenomatous polyposis coli in inflammation-associated and spontaneous tumor models.
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Expression and clinical significance of CXCL17 and GPR35 in endometrial carcinoma

Jun Hao et al.

Summary: This study suggests that CXCL17 and CXCR8 may play a significant role in the occurrence and development of endometrial carcinoma, and high expression of CXCL17 may be used as a biomarker for predicting survival.

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Tryptophan and the innate intestinal immunity: Crosstalk between metabolites, host innate immune cells, and microbiota

Yunke Li et al.

Summary: The intestinal mucosal barrier plays a critical role in nutrient absorption and overall health. Recent studies have shown the importance of the nutrients-bacteria-host interaction for intestinal homeostasis. Dysfunction of these interactions has been associated with metabolic disorders and intestinal diseases. Tryptophan and its metabolites have been found to regulate enterocyte proliferation, intestinal integrity, immune response, and intestinal microbiota, thus contributing to intestinal health. This review highlights the effects of tryptophan and its metabolites on the mucosal barrier and intestinal homeostasis, as well as the signaling pathways involved in tryptophan metabolism.

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Epithelial GPR35 protects from Citrobacter rodentium infection by preserving goblet cells and mucosal barrier integrity

Hassan Melhem et al.

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The GPR35 expression pattern is associated with overall survival in male patients with colorectal cancer

Tomasz Mackiewicz et al.

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Kynurenic acid ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced endometritis by regulating the GRP35/NF-κB signaling pathway

Ying Wang et al.

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Exercised accelerated the production of muscle-derived kynurenic acid in skeletal muscle and alleviated the postmenopausal osteoporosis through the Gpr35/NF?B p65 pathway

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Summary: The serum level of muscle-derived kynurenic acid (Kyna) is lower in postmenopausal osteoporosis (PMOP) model mice. Exercise and exogenous Kyna treatment can alleviate the effects of PMOP through the Gpr35 receptor.

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Oxidized DNA fragments exit mitochondria via mPTP- and VDAC-dependent channels to activate NLRP3 inflammasome and interferon signaling

Hongxu Xian et al.

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Isoforms of GPR35 have distinct extracellular N-termini that allosterically modify receptor-transducer coupling and mediate intracellular pathway bias

Hannes Schihada et al.

Summary: The G protein-coupled receptor GPR35 is involved in oncogenic signaling, bacterial infections, and inflammatory bowel disease within the intestine. This study reveals that GPR35 has two isoforms with distinct promoters and alternative splicing. The longer isoform limits G protein activation but enhances receptor-beta-arrestin interaction. Structural analysis suggests that a disulfide bridge between the N-terminus and extracellular loop 3 is crucial for G protein activation, while an additional cysteine from the extended N-terminus of the longer isoform limits agonist-induced receptor-beta-arrestin2 interaction. The findings provide insights for developing isoform-specific GPR35 ligands for mechanism-based therapies.

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Insights into divalent cation regulation and G13-coupling of orphan receptor GPR35

Jia Duan et al.

Summary: This study reports the cryo-electron microscopy structure of GPR35 coupled with G(13) and bound to the anti-allergic drug lodoxamide. The structure reveals a novel divalent cation coordination site and a unique ionic regulatory mode of GPR35, providing insights into its ligand binding promiscuity. Structural comparison with other G protein subtypes-coupled GPCRs highlights significant movements in the G alpha(13) subunit and the GPR35 TM6 helix.

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Recent advances in clinical trials targeting the kynurenine pathway

Ananda Staats Pires et al.

Summary: The kynurenine pathway (KP) is a crucial pathway for the metabolism of tryptophan, an essential amino acid. Activation of KP under inflammatory conditions produces various metabolites that have the potential to affect redox activity, immune response, and neurotoxicity. Dysregulation of this pathway has been implicated in a wide range of neurological diseases and psychiatric disorders.

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Mitochondrial remodeling and ischemic protection by G protein-coupled receptor 35 agonists

Gregory A. Wyant et al.

Summary: Kynurenic acid (KynA) has tissue-protective effects in ischemia models, and this study demonstrates that activation of GPR35 and interaction with ATPIF1 may be the underlying mechanism. These findings provide a rationale for developing specific GPR35 agonists for the treatment of ischemic diseases.

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GPR35, ally of the anti-ischemic ATPIF1-ATP synthase interaction

Salvatore Nesci

Summary: Mitochondrial ATP synthase synthesizes ATP for cellular functions, but it can also hydrolyze ATP under various conditions to re-energize the mitochondria. ATP synthase inhibitory factor 1 (ATPIF1) inhibits this hydrolysis process. Recent research has shown that G-protein-coupled receptor 35 (GPR35) is involved in this process, providing a new framework for the discovery of potential therapeutic molecules against ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury.

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Kynurenic acid ameliorates NLRP3 inflammasome activation by blocking calcium mobilization via GPR35

Tianyin Sun et al.

Summary: Kynurenic acid (KA) inhibits activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome through reducing calcium mobilization and mitochondrial damage, thus preventing inflammation and metabolic disorders.

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ERR-activated GPR35 promotes immune infiltration level of macrophages in gastric cancer tissues

Chuanjun Shu et al.

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Summary: Novel coumarin-like diacid derivatives were designed and synthesized as potent agonists of human G-protein-coupled receptor 35 (hGPR35). Compounds with two acidic groups connected to a rigid aromatic scaffold displayed excellent potency, demonstrating a general strategy for designing and recognizing GPR35 agonists.

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GPR35 in Intestinal Diseases: From Risk Gene to Function

Berna Kaya et al.

Summary: Diet and gut microbial metabolites play a crucial role in mediating host immune responses and maintaining intestinal health. The metabolite-sensing GPCRs, especially GPR35, are important for signaling that affects host cell function and survival. There is a link between GPR35 and intestinal diseases, with studies showing that it is activated by metabolites such as KYNA, CXCL17, and LPA.

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William Roth et al.

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G-protein coupled receptor 35 (GPR35) regulates the colonic epithelial cell response to enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis

Annemarie Boleij et al.

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The kynurenine pathway in chronic diseases: a compensatory mechanism or a driving force?

Niklas Joisten et al.

Summary: The dysregulation of the kynurenine pathway in tryptophan metabolism is associated with inflammation-driven pathologies, making it a potential therapeutic target for diseases such as cancer and brain disorders. It is important to consider both compensatory mechanisms and bioenergetic roles of KP metabolites in designing effective therapeutic approaches to attenuate disease progression.

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Disruption of GPR35 Signaling in Bone Marrow-Derived Cells Does Not Influence Vascular Inflammation and Atherosclerosis in Hyperlipidemic Mice

Roland Baumgartner et al.

Summary: Studies on G-protein-coupled receptor-35 (GPR35) suggest that its expression does not directly impact macrophage activation, vascular inflammation, and the development of atherosclerosis, as indicated by experiments on GPR35KO and WT chimeric mice.

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G Protein-Coupled Receptor GPR35 Suppresses Lipid Accumulation in Hepatocytes

Li-Chiung Lin et al.

Summary: Experimental studies using various mouse models and a humanized GPR35 mouse model suggest that activation of the GPR35 receptor can effectively prevent and reverse lipid accumulation induced by liver X receptor stimulation. This finding highlights the potential value of targeting GPR35 in the treatment of fatty liver diseases.

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Therapeutic Opportunities and Challenges in Targeting the Orphan G Protein-Coupled Receptor GPR35

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