Mesenchymal Stem Cells-Derived Apoptotic Extracellular Vesicles (ApoEVs): Mechanism and Application in Tissue Regeneration

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are commonly used as a source for cellular therapy owing to their strong immunosuppressive and regenerative effects. However, MSCs undergo extensive apoptosis within a short period after transplantation. During apoptosis, MSCs generate several apoptotic extracellular vesicles (MSCs-ApoEVs). MSCs-ApoEVs are rich in miRNomes, metabolites, and proteomes. They are critical intercellular communication mediators that can exert different regulatory effects on recipient cells. MSCs-ApoEVs have been shown to promote regeneration in the skin, hair, bone, muscle, and vascular system, etc. This review describes the production, release, isolation, and functionality of ApoEVs in detail. Furthermore, we summarize the existing mechanisms of MSCs-ApoEVs used for tissue regeneration and evaluate the possible strategies for their clinical application.

Automated summary

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are commonly used for cellular therapy due to their immunosuppressive and regenerative effects. However, MSCs undergo extensive apoptosis after transplantation. During apoptosis, MSCs generate apoptotic extracellular vesicles (MSCs-ApoEVs), which play a critical role in intercellular communication and tissue regeneration. This review provides a detailed overview of the production, release, isolation, functionality, and potential clinical applications of MSCs-ApoEVs.