Force transmission and interactions between synergistic muscles

The classical view of muscles as independent motors has been challenged over the past decades. An alternative view has emerged in which muscles are not isolated but embedded in a three-dimensional connective tissue network that links them to adjacent muscles and other non-muscular structures in the body. Animal studies showing that the forces measured at the distal and proximal ends of a muscle are not equal have provided un-disputable evidence that these connective tissue linkages are strong enough to serve as an extra pathway for muscular force transmission. In this historical review, we first introduce the terminology and anatomy related to these pathways of muscle force transmission and provide a definition for the term epimuscular force trans-mission. We then focus on important experimental evidence indicating mechanical interactions between syn-ergistic muscles that may affect force transmission and/or influence the muscles' force generating capacity. We illustrate that there may exist different expressions of the highly relevant force-length properties depending on whether the force is measured at the proximal or distal tendon and depending on the dynamics of surrounding structures. Changes in length, activation level or disruption of the connective tissue of neighboring muscles, can affect how muscles interact and produce force on the skeleton. While most direct evidence is from animal ex-periments, studies on humans also suggest functional implications of the connective tissues surrounding muscles. These implications may explain how distant segments, which are not part of the same joint system, affect force generation at a given joint, and, in clinical conditions, explain observations from tendon transfer surgeries, where a muscle transferred to act as an antagonist continues to produce agonistic moments.

Automated summary

The traditional belief that muscles function as independent motors has been challenged. The new view suggests that muscles are interconnected by a connective tissue network, allowing force transmission. Animal studies have provided evidence of this force transmission pathway. The review focuses on the mechanics of muscle interactions and the effect of surrounding structures, providing valuable insights for both animal and human studies.