A 200-year snapshot of soil development in pyroclastic deposits derived from the 1815 super explosive eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia

Early-stage pedogenic processes and formation rates on completely obliterated volcanic landscapes, such as the super explosive 1815 Mount Tambora eruption, have not previously been robustly explored. The objectives of this study were to determine (i) the mineralogical composition of the sand fraction, selected physical and chemical soil properties and potential nutrient reserves after 200 years of pedogenesis, and (ii) chemical weathering indices, rate of soil formation, and rates of C and N accretion. Soil formation was examined for five soil profiles on stable plain/foot slope positions representing the diversity of soils in these landscape positions, which are important for agricultural production. Results showed that the soil mineralogical composition of the sand fraction was dominated by easily weatherable minerals (e.g., labradorite and augite volcanic glass) indicating high potential nutrient reserves (e.g., Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, P) as confirmed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyses. Allophanic material formation was minimal (<2.3%) owing to the preferential accumulation of Al3+ into Al-humic complexes. The low contents of allophanic materials and metal-humus complexes resulted in low Pretention (17.5-43.4%) within the soil solum, with the highest value in surface horizons (33-43%). Morphological features showed rapid solum (A + B horizons) development of 22 to 107 cm. Shallow soils occurred on shallow eruption deposits (consisting of pyroclastic flow underlain by pumice), whereas the deepest soils were found on thick deposit consisting of either trachyandesite pyroclastic or basaltic andesite materials. The chemical index of alteration (CIA) followed the order of A horizons (48.4 +/- 4.6) > B horizons (45.4 +/- 2.4) > C horizons (43.8 +/- 4.2) approximate to tephra/lava (43.1), indicating accumulation of Al oxides and depletion of base cations in the upper horizons. Similarly, the base depletion index (BDI) showed a trend of A horizons (1.13 +/- 0.18) < B horizons (1.25 +/- 0.09) < C horizons (1.34 +/- 0.20) approximate to tephra/lava (1.35), indicating depletion of base cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+) from the soil surface to C horizons. Based on solum depths (A + B horizons) and 200 years of post-eruption soil development, the solum formation rate ranged from 1.2 to 5.3 mm yr(-1). Appreciable stocks of SOC (2.3-12.8 kg C m(-2)) and SON (0.21-0.77 kg m(-2)) accumulated over the 200 year period. Eruption materials from the Mt. Tambora eruption with a precisely known timescale contributed new pedological insights documenting rapid soil formation rates from pyroclastic materials leading to a rapid recovery of soil functions to support agricultural production.

Automated summary

This study investigated the formation of new soils after the eruption of Mount Tambora 200 years ago. The results showed that the new soils were dominated by easily weatherable minerals and had high potential nutrient reserves. The formation rate of the new soils ranged from 1.2 to 5.3 mm/year, and they accumulated significant stocks of organic carbon and nitrogen, indicating a rapid recovery of soil functions to support agricultural production after the volcanic eruption.