From oxidative imbalance to compromised standard sperm parameters: Toxicological aspect of phthalate esters on spermatozoa

The exponential rise in global male infertility and subfertility-related issues raises severe concern. One of the major contributors is phthalate esters, typical endocrine disruptors affecting millions of lives. The inevitable exposure to phthalates due to their universal application as plasticizers leaves the human population vulnerable to this silent threat. This review explicitly deals with the spermiotoxic effects of different phthalate esters on in vivo and in vitro models and on surveyed human populations to find the most plausible link between global usage of phthalates and poor sperm health. As the free radicals in spermatozoa are prerequisites for their standard structure and functioning, the precise regulation and phthalate-mediated impairment of pro-oxidant:anti-oxidant balance with subsequent loss of structural and functional integrity have also been critically discussed. Further-more, we also provided future directives, which, if addressed, will fill the still-existing lacunae in phthalate-mediated male reproductive toxicity research.

Automated summary

The exponential rise in global male infertility and subfertility-related issues due to phthalate esters usage raises severe concern. This review focuses on the spermiotoxic effects of phthalate esters, discussing their impact on in vivo and in vitro models as well as surveyed human populations. The imbalance in pro-oxidant:anti-oxidant ratio caused by phthalates and subsequent loss of sperm structural and functional integrity are also critically discussed. Future research directions to address the knowledge gaps in phthalate-mediated male reproductive toxicity are provided.