Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) as electrochemical sensors for the efficient detection of pharmaceutical residues

Pharmaceutical residues are the undecomposed remains from drugs used in the medical and food industries. Due to their potential adverse effects on human health and natural ecosystems, they are of increasing worldwide concern. The acute detection of pharmaceutical residues can give a rapid examination of their quantity and then prevent them from further contamination. Herein, this study summarizes and discusses the most recent porous covalent-organic frameworks (COFs) and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) for the electrochemical detection of various pharmaceutical residues. The review first introduces a brief overview of drug toxicity and its effects on living organisms. Subsequently, different porous materials and drug detection techniques are discussed with materials' properties and applications. Then the development of COFs and MOFs has been addressed with their structural properties and sensing applications. Further, the stability, reusability, and sustainability of MOFs/ COFs are reviewed and discussed. Besides, COFs and MOFs' detection limits, linear ranges, the role of func-tionalities, and immobilized nanoparticles are analyzed and discussed. Lastly, this review summarized and discussed the MOF@COF composite as sensors, the fabrication strategies to enhance detection potential, and the current challenges in this area.

Automated summary

Pharmaceutical residues are undecomposed remains from drugs used in medical and food industries and their potential adverse effects have raised global concerns. This study focuses on the electrochemical detection of pharmaceutical residues using porous covalent-organic frameworks (COFs) and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). It provides an overview of drug toxicity and its impact on living organisms, discusses various porous materials and drug detection techniques, explores the development of COFs and MOFs, reviews their stability and reusability, and analyzes the detection limits and functionalities of COFs and MOFs. The study also discusses the challenges and opportunities in the field.