Friends in Arms: Flavonoids and the Auxin/Cytokinin Balance in Terrestrialization

Land plants survive the challenges of new environments by evolving mechanisms that protect them from excess irradiation, nutrient deficiency, and temperature and water availability fluctuations. One such evolved mechanism is the regulation of the shoot/root growth ratio in response to water and nutrient availability by balancing the actions of the hormones auxin and cytokinin. Plant terrestrialization co-occurred with a dramatic expansion in secondary metabolism, particularly with the evolution and establishment of the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway. Flavonoid biosynthesis is responsive to a wide range of stresses, and the numerous synthesized flavonoid species offer two main evolutionary advantages to land plants. First, flavonoids are antioxidants and thus defend plants against those adverse conditions that lead to the overproduction of reactive oxygen species. Second, flavonoids aid in protecting plants against water and nutrient deficiency by modulating root development and establishing symbiotic relations with beneficial soil fungi and bacteria. Here, we review different aspects of the relationships between the auxin/cytokinin module and flavonoids. The current body of knowledge suggests that whereas both auxin and cytokinin regulate flavonoid biosynthesis, flavonoids act to fine-tune only auxin, which in turn regulates cytokinin action. This conclusion agrees with the established master regulatory function of auxin in controlling the shoot/root growth ratio.

Automated summary

Land plants have evolved mechanisms to protect themselves from environmental challenges, such as excessive radiation, nutrient deficiency, and fluctuations in temperature and water availability. One such mechanism is the regulation of shoot/root growth ratio through the actions of hormones auxin and cytokinin in response to water and nutrient availability. The evolution and establishment of the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway, which is responsive to various stresses, offer evolutionary advantages by acting as antioxidants and aiding in root development and symbiotic relationships with beneficial soil fungi and bacteria. This review discusses the relationships between the auxin/cytokinin module and flavonoids, suggesting that flavonoids fine-tune auxin, which then regulates cytokinin action, consistent with the master regulatory function of auxin in controlling shoot/root growth ratio.