Imaging of magnetic and electric fields by electron microscopy

Nanostructured materials become more and more a part of our daily life, partly as self-assembled particles or artificially patterned. These nanostructures often possess intrinsic magnetic and/or electric fields which determine (at least partially) their physical properties. Therefore it is important to be able to measure these fields reliably on a nanometre scale. A rather common instrument for the investigation of these fields is the transmission electron microscope as it offers high spatial resolution. The use of an electron microscope to image electric and magnetic fields on a micron down to sub-nanometre scale is treated in detail for transmission electron microscopes (TEM) and scanning transmission electron microscopes (STEM). The formation of contrast is described for the most common imaging modes, the specific advantages and disadvantages of each technique are discussed and examples are given. In addition, the experimental requirements for the use of the techniques described are listed and explained.