Functional, genetic, and structural constraints on the exaggeration and diversification of male genital morphology in Ohomopterus ground beetles

The evolution of exaggerated sexual traits may be possible by the relaxation of various constraints on exaggeration. Functional constraints refer to the reduced performance of exaggerated traits per se or increased survival costs by holding the exaggerated traits. Genetic constraints, such as genetic correlations or pleiotropy, may hinder the independent evolution and exaggeration of traits. Structural constraints, such as competition for space and resources among traits, may require the coordination of the exaggerated trait with surrounding structures. The remarkable diversity of male genital morphology provides an ideal opportunity for examining constraints on sexual trait exaggeration. In this study, we addressed the constraints on the evolution of exaggerated male genital morphology based on a comparative analysis of phenotypic covariation between the genitalia and other body parts using Ohomopterus ground beetles. We found that exaggerated male genitalia were related to a relaxation of functional constraint, as revealed by a steeper allometric slope in the species with exaggerated male genitalia. By contrast, genetic constraint based on a shared genetic basis for the male genitalia and other appendages may have little effect on diversification in male genitalia. Structural constraints were strongest in the species with the most exaggerated male genitalia, suggesting that the observed constraint was a result of exaggeration. These findings improve our understanding of sexual trait exaggeration and underlying constraints.

Automated summary

The evolution of exaggerated sexual traits is possible due to the relaxation of various constraints, including functional, genetic, and structural constraints. Functional constraints refer to reduced performance or increased survival costs of exaggerated traits. Genetic constraints hinder independent evolution and exaggeration of traits, while structural constraints require coordination of traits. A study on male genital morphology in ground beetles suggests that functional constraints are relaxed in species with exaggerated genitalia, genetic constraints have little effect, and structural constraints are strongest in species with the most exaggerated genitalia.