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Sex hormones and immune system: Menopausal hormone therapy in the context of COVID-19 pandemic

FRONTIERS IN IMMUNOLOGY (2022)

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Summary: Epidemiological studies have found a slightly higher risk of severe Covid-19 symptoms and fatalities in men compared to women of similar age following SARS-CoV-2 infection. This difference may be attributed to variations in immune system regulation between males and females, driven by different levels of sex hormones, especially higher plasma estradiol in women. In vitro treatment of A549 human lung epithelial cells with 17-beta-estradiol was found to reduce the mRNA levels of ACE2 and TMPRSS2, which are proteins involved in the entry of SARS-CoV-2 into lung cells. This suggests that 17-beta-estradiol may decrease the infection of lung epithelial cells by SARS-CoV-2, providing a possible explanation for the lower incidence of severe Covid-19 and fatalities among women compared to men of similar age.

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Association between pharmaceutical modulation of oestrogen in postmenopausal women in Sweden and death due to COVID-19: a cohort study

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Summary: This study investigates the association between sex hormone levels and outcomes in COVID-19 patients, stratified by sex and age. The results show that lower testosterone levels are linked to the occurrence of ARDS and severe COVID-19 in older males, while higher estradiol levels are associated with an increased risk of death. Testosterone levels are negatively associated with ARDS, severe COVID-19, and in-hospital mortality, while estradiol levels are positively associated with the risk of death.

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Daniela Mateus et al.

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Lessons from KEEPS: the Kronos Early Estrogen Prevention Study

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Summary: The Kronos Early Estrogen Prevention Study (KEEPS) showed that hormone treatments (MHT) did not decrease the age-related increase in carotid intima-medial thickness, but could reduce the severity of menopausal symptoms and maintain bone density. Additionally, the type, dose, and genetic variants in hormone metabolism play important roles in MHT efficacy.

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Puja Bagri et al.

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Serum estradiol level according to dose and formulation of oral estrogens in postmenopausal women

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Summary: The study evaluated serum estradiol levels in postmenopausal women using different doses and formulations of oral menopausal hormone therapy. It found that serum estradiol levels were not directly proportional to estrogen dose, with estradiol 2 mg showing significantly higher levels compared to estradiol 1 mg and conjugated estrogen 0.45 mg.

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Summary: Prescribing practices for menopausal hormone therapy have evolved in recent decades based on changing understanding of the treatment's risks and benefits. Recent research suggests that the risks of HT are low for healthy women under 60 or within ten years of menopause, while the benefits may outweigh the risks for those experiencing bothersome vasomotor symptoms. HT also plays a role in preventing osteoporosis for appropriate candidates.

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The Looming Effects of Estrogen in Covid-19: A Rocky Rollout

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Summary: This study explored the role of sex differences in COVID-19 outcomes and found that sex hormones play a key role in immune responses, while differential production of sex hormones over different lifecycles and seasons may result in varying responses to COVID-19. Therefore, the impact of sex hormones should be considered in vaccine development and treatment.

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Estrogen and COVID-19 symptoms: Associations in women from the COVID Symptom Study

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Review Immunology

Sex Hormones in Acquired Immunity and Autoimmune Disease

Vaishali R. Moulton

FRONTIERS IN IMMUNOLOGY (2018)

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Estriol Reduces Pulmonary Immune Cell Recruitment and Inflammation to Protect Female Mice From Severe Influenza

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ENDOCRINOLOGY (2018)

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Associations between clinically diagnosed testicular hypofunction and systemic lupus erythematosus: a record linkage study

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CLINICAL RHEUMATOLOGY (2018)

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Review Endocrinology & Metabolism

Menopausal Hormone Therapy and Type 2 Diabetes Prevention: Evidence, Mechanisms, and Clinical Implications

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ENDOCRINE REVIEWS (2017)

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Sex Differences in Macrophage Functions in Middle-Aged Rats: Relevance of Estradiol Level and Macrophage Estrogen Receptor Expression

Ivana Curuvija et al.

INFLAMMATION (2017)

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Article Immunology

Sex-Based Differences in Susceptibility to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Infection

Rudragouda Channappanavar et al.

JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (2017)

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Article Obstetrics & Gynecology

The 2017 hormone therapy position statement of The North American Menopause Society

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MENOPAUSE-THE JOURNAL OF THE NORTH AMERICAN MENOPAUSE SOCIETY (2017)

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Landscape of X chromosome inactivation across human tissues

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NATURE (2017)

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

Self-renewal and phenotypic conversion are the main physiological responses of macrophages to the endogenous estrogen surge

Giovanna Pepe et al.

SCIENTIFIC REPORTS (2017)

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

Oestrogen Receptor-α binds the FOXP3 promoter and modulates regulatory T-cell function in human cervical cancer

Sreenivas Adurthi et al.

SCIENTIFIC REPORTS (2017)

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Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

The effects of 17 alpha-estradiol to inhibit inflammation in vitro

Roberta S. Santos et al.

BIOLOGY OF SEX DIFFERENCES (2017)

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The lack of BTK does not impair monocytes and polymorphonuclear cells functions in X-linked agammaglobulinemia under treatment with intravenous immunoglobulin replacement

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PLOS ONE (2017)

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Review Obstetrics & Gynecology

Molecular mechanism of estrogen-estrogen receptor signaling

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REPRODUCTIVE MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY (2017)

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Comparison of Mucosal Markers of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Susceptibility in Healthy Premenopausal Versus Postmenopausal Women

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AIDS RESEARCH AND HUMAN RETROVIRUSES (2017)

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Differential modulation of innate immune response by epinephrine and estradiol

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HORMONE MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND CLINICAL INVESTIGATION (2017)

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Sex-specific effects of sex steroids on alveolar epithelial Na+ transport

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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY-LUNG CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR PHYSIOLOGY (2017)

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Effects of Xenoestrogens in Human M1 and M2 Macrophage Migration, Cytokine Release, and Estrogen-Related Signaling Pathways

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ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY (2016)

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Review Obstetrics & Gynecology

Effects of hormone replacement therapy on immunological factors in the postmenopausal period

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CLIMACTERIC (2016)

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2016 IMS Recommendations on women's midlife health and menopause hormone therapy

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The immunoendocrinology of systemic lupus erythematosus

Robert G. Lahita

CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY (2016)

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Maintaining postreproductive health: A care pathway from the European Menopause and Andropause Society (EMAS)

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MATURITAS (2016)

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Article Obstetrics & Gynecology

Cardiovascular, hemodynamic, neuroendocrine, and inflammatory markers in women with and without vasomotor symptoms

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MENOPAUSE-THE JOURNAL OF THE NORTH AMERICAN MENOPAUSE SOCIETY (2016)

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Pre-fusion structure of a human coronavirus spike protein

Robert N. Kirchdoerfer et al.

NATURE (2016)

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Vascular Effects of Early versus Late Postmenopausal Treatment with Estradiol

Howard N. Hodis et al.

NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE (2016)

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

Association of Vasomotor and Other Menopausal Symptoms with Risk of Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Taulant Muka et al.

PLOS ONE (2016)

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Editorial Material Medicine, General & Internal

Diagnosis and Management of Menopause The National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Guideline

Mary Ann Lumsden et al.

JAMA INTERNAL MEDICINE (2016)

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Review Medicine, General & Internal

Short-termand long-term effects of tibolone in postmenopausal women

Giulio Formoso et al.

COCHRANE DATABASE OF SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS (2016)

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Review Immunology

Sex differences in immune responses

Sabra L. Klein et al.

NATURE REVIEWS IMMUNOLOGY (2016)

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Review Cell Biology

How sex and age affect immune responses, susceptibility to infections, and response to vaccination

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AGING CELL (2015)

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Article Immunology

Unopposed Estrogen Supplementation/Progesterone Deficiency in Post-Reproductive Age Affects the Secretory Profile of Resident Macrophages in a Tissue-Specific Manner in the Rat

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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE IMMUNOLOGY (2015)

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Review Immunology

Hormonal modulation of the immune system - A spotlight on the role of progestogens

Irene J. Tan et al.

AUTOIMMUNITY REVIEWS (2015)

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Estrogen receptors regulate innate immune cells and signaling pathways

Susan Kovats

CELLULAR IMMUNOLOGY (2015)

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Selective estrogen receptor modulators in T cell development and T cell dependent inflammation

Angelina I. Bernardi et al.

IMMUNOBIOLOGY (2015)

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Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Alternative Activation of Human Macrophages Is Rescued by Estrogen Treatment In Vitro and Impaired by Menopausal Status

Alice Toniolo et al.

JOURNAL OF CLINICAL ENDOCRINOLOGY & METABOLISM (2015)

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Treatment of Symptoms of the Menopause: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline

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JOURNAL OF CLINICAL ENDOCRINOLOGY & METABOLISM (2015)

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Article Immunology

Sex Differences in Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cell Levels of IRF5 Drive Higher IFN-α Production in Women

Morgane Griesbeck et al.

JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (2015)

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Review Geriatrics & Gerontology

The association between vasomotor symptoms and metabolic health in peri- and postmenopausal women: A systematic review

Gabriella M. van Dijk et al.

MATURITAS (2015)

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Article Obstetrics & Gynecology

The North American Menopause Society Statement on Continuing Use of Systemic Hormone Therapy After Age 65

MENOPAUSE-THE JOURNAL OF THE NORTH AMERICAN MENOPAUSE SOCIETY (2015)

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Article Microbiology

Toll-Like Receptor 3 Signaling via TRIF Contributes to a Protective Innate Immune Response to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Infection

Allison L. Totura et al.

MBIO (2015)

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

Estrogen accelerates the resolution of inflammation in macrophagic cells

Alessandro Villa et al.

SCIENTIFIC REPORTS (2015)

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Review Immunology

FOXP3+ Treg cells and gender bias in autoimmune diseases

Jia Nie et al.

FRONTIERS IN IMMUNOLOGY (2015)

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Review Medicine, General & Internal

Hormone therapy for preventing cardiovascular disease in post-menopausal women

Henry M. P. Boardman et al.

COCHRANE DATABASE OF SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS (2015)

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Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

17β-Estradiol Replacement Reverses Age-Related Lung Disease in Estrogen-Deficient C57BL/6J Mice

Marilyn K. Glassberg et al.

ENDOCRINOLOGY (2014)

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Review Endocrinology & Metabolism

Gender differences in autoimmune disease

S. T. Ngo et al.

FRONTIERS IN NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY (2014)

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X-Chromosome Complement and Estrogen Receptor Signaling Independently Contribute to the Enhanced TLR7-Mediated IFN-α Production of Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells from Women

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JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (2014)

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Article Virology

17β-Estradiol Protects Females against Influenza by Recruiting Neutrophils and Increasing Virus-Specific CD8 T Cell Responses in the Lungs

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JOURNAL OF VIROLOGY (2014)

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Endothelial estrogen receptor isoforms and cardiovascular disease

Kyung Hee Kim et al.

MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR ENDOCRINOLOGY (2014)

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Review Rheumatology

Modulation of autoimmune rheumatic diseases by oestrogen and progesterone

Grant C. Hughes et al.

NATURE REVIEWS RHEUMATOLOGY (2014)

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The pattern of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in Saudi Arabia: a descriptive epidemiological analysis of data from the Saudi Ministry of Health

Ibrahim G. Alghamdi et al.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GENERAL MEDICINE (2014)

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Article Respiratory System

17β-estradiol suppresses lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury through PI3K/Akt/SGK1 mediated up-regulation of epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in vivo and in vitro

Di Qi et al.

RESPIRATORY RESEARCH (2014)

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Article Physiology

Estradiol activates epithelial sodium channels in rat alveolar cells through the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor

Megan M. Greenlee et al.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY-LUNG CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR PHYSIOLOGY (2013)

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Oestrogen and immunomodulation: new mechanisms that impact on peripheral and central immunity

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CURRENT OPINION IN PHARMACOLOGY (2013)

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HLA Class II Molecules Influence Susceptibility versus Protection in Inflammatory Diseases by Determining the Cytokine Profile

Ashutosh K. Mangalam et al.

JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (2013)

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Article Public, Environmental & Occupational Health

Endogenous Reproductive Hormones and C-reactive Protein Across the Menstrual Cycle

Audrey J. Gaskins et al.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY (2012)

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Review Immunology

Progesterone and autoimmune disease

Grant C. Hughes

AUTOIMMUNITY REVIEWS (2012)

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Effects of 17ß-estradiol on the release of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and MAPK activity in monocytes stimulated with peritoneal fluid from endometriosis patients

Dong-Hyung Lee et al.

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MUCOSAL IMMUNE FUNCTION COMPARISON BETWEEN AMENORRHEIC AND EUMENORRHEIC DISTANCE RUNNERS

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

Estrogen Modulates NFκB Signaling by Enhancing IκBα Levels and Blocking p65 Binding at the Promoters of Inflammatory Genes via Estrogen Receptor-β

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PLOS ONE (2012)

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G-Protein Coupled Receptor 30 (GPR30): A Novel Regulator of Endothelial Inflammation

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PLOS ONE (2012)

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Position paper: The membrane estrogen receptor GPER - Clues and questions

Matthias Barton

STEROIDS (2012)

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17β-estradiol attenuates exercise-induced neutrophil infiltration in men

Lauren G. MacNeil et al.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY-REGULATORY INTEGRATIVE AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY (2011)

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Article Hematology

Activation of the Annexin A1 Pathway Underlies the Protective Effects Exerted by Estrogen in Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes

Suchita Nadkarni et al.

ARTERIOSCLEROSIS THROMBOSIS AND VASCULAR BIOLOGY (2011)

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Estrogen enhances the functions of CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells that suppress osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption in vitro

C. Y. Luo et al.

CELLULAR & MOLECULAR IMMUNOLOGY (2011)

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Review Allergy

Estrogen Receptors in Immunity and Autoimmunity

Melissa Cunningham et al.

CLINICAL REVIEWS IN ALLERGY & IMMUNOLOGY (2011)

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Genes that escape from X inactivation

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HUMAN GENETICS (2011)

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Modulation of Sodium Transport in Alveolar Epithelial Cells by Estradiol and Progesterone

Mandy Laube et al.

PEDIATRIC RESEARCH (2011)

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Myeloid-specific estrogen receptor α deficiency impairs metabolic homeostasis and accelerates atherosclerotic lesion development

Vicent Ribas et al.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (2011)

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Article Critical Care Medicine

ROLE OF ESTROGEN RECEPTOR-DEPENDENT UPREGULATION OF P38 MAPK/HEME OXYGENASE 1 IN RESVERATROL-MEDIATED ATTENUATION OF INTESTINAL INJURY AFTER TRAUMA-HEMORRHAGE

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SHOCK (2011)

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Article Toxicology

Estradiol and progesterone modulate halothane-induced liver injury in mice

Yasuyuki Toyoda et al.

TOXICOLOGY LETTERS (2011)

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Article Microbiology

Elevated 17β-Estradiol Protects Females from Influenza A Virus Pathogenesis by Suppressing Inflammatory Responses

Dionne P. Robinson et al.

PLOS PATHOGENS (2011)

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Article Critical Care Medicine

Gender Dimorphism in the Gut: Mucosal Protection by Estrogen Stimulation of IgA Transcytosis

Mark E. Diebel et al.

JOURNAL OF TRAUMA-INJURY INFECTION AND CRITICAL CARE (2011)

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Article Anthropology

Gonadal Steroids and Salivary IgA in Healthy Young Women and Men

Sari M. van Anders

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF HUMAN BIOLOGY (2010)

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Review Immunology

PD-1, gender, and autoimmunity

Ravi K. Dinesh et al.

AUTOIMMUNITY REVIEWS (2010)

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Article Immunology

Estrogen increases, whereas IL-27 and IFN-γ decrease, splenocyte IL-17 production in WT mice

Deena Khan et al.

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (2010)

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Article Immunology

Estradiol Suppresses NF-κB Activation through Coordinated Regulation of let-7a and miR-125b in Primary Human Macrophages

Amy J. Murphy et al.

JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (2010)

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

Estrogen Receptor Hormone Agonists Limit Trauma Hemorrhage Shock-Induced Gut and Lung Injury in Rats

Danielle Doucet et al.

PLOS ONE (2010)

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Article Microbiology

Exposure to HIV-1 Directly Impairs Mucosal Epithelial Barrier Integrity Allowing Microbial Translocation

Aisha Nazli et al.

PLOS PATHOGENS (2010)

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Article Immunology

Sex hormones and mucosal wound healing

Christopher G. Engeland et al.

BRAIN BEHAVIOR AND IMMUNITY (2009)

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Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Signal Transducer and Activation of Transcription (STAT) 4β, a Shorter Isoform of Interleukin-12-Induced STAT4, Is Preferentially Activated by Estrogen

Ebru Karpuzoglu et al.

ENDOCRINOLOGY (2009)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Sex differences in the Toll-like receptor-mediated response of plasmacytoid dendritic cells to HIV-1

Angela Meier et al.

NATURE MEDICINE (2009)

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Article Obstetrics & Gynecology

Breast Cancer Risk in Postmenopausal Women Using Estradiol-Progestogen Therapy

Heli Lyytinen et al.

OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY (2009)

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Review Cell Biology

Regulation of dendritic cell differentiation and function by estrogen receptor ligands

Susan Kovats et al.

CELLULAR IMMUNOLOGY (2008)

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Review Endocrinology & Metabolism

Non-classical genomic estrogen receptor (ER)/specificity protein and ER/activating protein-1 signaling pathways

Stephen Safe et al.

JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR ENDOCRINOLOGY (2008)

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Article Immunology

Estradiol selectively regulates innate immune function by polarized human uterine epithelial cells in culture

J. V. Fahey et al.

MUCOSAL IMMUNOLOGY (2008)

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Article Immunology

Modulation of 17β-estradiol on the number and cytotoxicity of NK cells in vivo related to MCM and activating receptors

Sha Hao et al.

INTERNATIONAL IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY (2007)

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Review Cell Biology

Signaling by Estrogens

Boris J. Cheskis et al.

JOURNAL OF CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY (2007)

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Article Immunology

Estradiol attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced CXC chemokine ligand 8 production by human peripheral blood monocytes

Patricia A. Pioli et al.

JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (2007)

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Article Immunology

Despite inhibition of nuclear localization of NF-κB p65, c-Rel, and RelB, 17-β estradiol up-regulates NF-κB signaling in mouse splenocytes:: The potential role of Bcl-3

Rujuan Dai et al.

JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (2007)

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Article Physiology

Downregulation of migration inhibitory factor is critical for estrogen-mediated attenuation of lung tissue damage following trauma-hemorrhage

Ya-Ching Hsieh et al.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY-LUNG CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR PHYSIOLOGY (2007)

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Article Cell Biology

Estrogen selectively regulates chemokines in murine splenocytes

Andrea J. Lengi et al.

JOURNAL OF LEUKOCYTE BIOLOGY (2007)

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Article Immunology

Progesterone inhibits mature rat dendritic cells in a receptor-mediated fashion

Cherie L. Butts et al.

INTERNATIONAL IMMUNOLOGY (2007)

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Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Progesterone receptor plays a major antiinflammatory role in human myometrial cells by antagonism of nuclear factor-κB activation of cyclooxygenase 2 expression

Daniel B. Hardy et al.

MOLECULAR ENDOCRINOLOGY (2006)

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Article Immunology

TLR7 Ligands induce higher IFN-α production in females

Beate Berghofer et al.

JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (2006)

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Article Multidisciplinary Sciences

Autoreactive B cell responses to RNA-related antigens due to TLR7 gene duplication

Prapaporn Pisitkun et al.

SCIENCE (2006)

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Article Immunology

Oestradiol potentiates the suppressive function of human CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells by promoting their proliferation

GA Prieto et al.

IMMUNOLOGY (2006)

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Article Immunology

Hormonal regulation of B cell development:: 17β-estradiol impairs negative selection of high-affinity DNA-reactive B cells at more than one developmental checkpoint

Christine M. Grimaldi et al.

JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (2006)

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Review Dermatology

Sex hormones and the genesis of autoimmunity

LS Ackerman

ARCHIVES OF DERMATOLOGY (2006)

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Article Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Effect of estrogens on the interferon-gamma producing cell population of mouse splenocytes

M Nakaya et al.

BIOSCIENCE BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY (2006)

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Review Obstetrics & Gynecology

Sex hormones and the immune response in humans

A Bouman et al.

HUMAN REPRODUCTION UPDATE (2005)

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Article Immunology

Estrogen regulates CCR gene expression and function in T lymphocytes

R Mo et al.

JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (2005)

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Article Cell Biology

Regulatory effects of estrogen on acute lung inflammation in mice

CL Speyer et al.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY-CELL PHYSIOLOGY (2005)

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Article Cell Biology

Estradiol and selective estrogen receptor modulators differentially regulate target genes with estrogen receptors α and β

MK Tee et al.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE CELL (2004)

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Article Public, Environmental & Occupational Health

Do men have a higher case fatality rate of severe acute respiratory syndrome than women do?

J Karlberg et al.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY (2004)

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Article Cardiac & Cardiovascular Systems

Estrogen modulates inflammatory mediator expression and neutrophil chemotaxis in injured arteries

AP Miller et al.

CIRCULATION (2004)

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Article Immunology

Cutting edge:: Estrogen drives expansion of the CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cell compartment

MJ Polanczyk et al.

JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (2004)

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Article Immunology

Immune effects of surgical menopause and estrogen replacement therapy in peri-menopausal women

S Kumru et al.

JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE IMMUNOLOGY (2004)

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Review Immunology

Estrogen as an immunomodulator

TJ Lang

CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY (2004)

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Article Immunology

Estrogen decreases expression of chemokine receptors, and suppresses chemokine bioactivity in murine monocytes

K Janis et al.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE IMMUNOLOGY (2004)

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Article Cell Biology

Estrogen receptor-α deficiency promotes increased TNF-α secretion and bacterial killing by murine macrophages in response to microbial stimuli in vitro

KC Lambert et al.

JOURNAL OF LEUKOCYTE BIOLOGY (2004)

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Article Rheumatology

17β-estradiol regulates cytokine release through modulation of CD16 expression in monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages

PR Kramer et al.

ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM (2004)

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Review Immunology

Regulation of innate and adaptive immunity by the female sex hormones oestradiol and progesterone

KW Beagley et al.

FEMS IMMUNOLOGY AND MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY (2003)

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Article Cardiac & Cardiovascular Systems

Estrogen increases bone marrow-derived endothelial progenitor cell production and diminishes neointima formation

K Strehlow et al.

CIRCULATION (2003)

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Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Effects of oestrogen deprivation on interleukin-6 production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells of postmenopausal women

D Rachon et al.

JOURNAL OF ENDOCRINOLOGY (2002)

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Article Endocrinology & Metabolism

Estrogen modulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and inflammatory cytokine responses to endotoxin in women

JJ Puder et al.

JOURNAL OF CLINICAL ENDOCRINOLOGY & METABOLISM (2001)

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Article Critical Care Medicine

Alveolar fluid clearance is impaired in the majority of patients with acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome

LB Ware et al.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF RESPIRATORY AND CRITICAL CARE MEDICINE (2001)

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