Cytotoxicity of Metal-Based Nanoparticles: From Mechanisms and Methods of Evaluation to Pathological Manifestations

Metal-based nanoparticles (NPs) are particularly important tools in tissue engineering-, drug carrier-, interventional therapy-, and biobased technologies. However, their complex and varied migration and transformation pathways, as well as their continuous accumulation in closed biological systems, cause various unpredictable toxic effects that threaten human and ecosystem health. Considerable experimental and theoretical efforts have been made toward understanding these cytotoxic effects, though more research on metal-based NPs integrated with clinical medicine is required. This review summarizes the mechanisms and evaluation methods of cytotoxicity and provides an in-depth analysis of the typical effects generated in the nervous, immune, reproductive, and genetic systems. In addition, the challenges and opportunities are discussed to enhance future investigations on safer metal-based NPs for practical commercial adoption.

Automated summary

Metal-based nanoparticles play important roles in various fields, but their complex migration and transformation pathways may lead to unpredictable toxic effects on human and ecosystem health. This review summarizes the mechanisms and evaluation methods of cytotoxicity, and analyzes the typical effects on the nervous, immune, reproductive, and genetic systems. Furthermore, the challenges and opportunities for enhancing the safety of metal-based nanoparticles for practical applications are discussed.